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Answer & Explanation:Question A: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)ERR_Clinical Behavior Therapy and the Experimental Anaylsis of Behavior.docx Question B: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)ERR_Functional Analysis Screening for Problem Behavior Maintainey by Automatic Reinforcement.docx Question C: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)Facilitation of Discrimination Learning.docx Question D: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)POSITIVE REINEORCEMENT AS TREATMENT FOR PROBLEM.docx Question E: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)Preference for immediate reinforcement.docx Question F: Video – “Healthy Sleep Practices. (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)http://digital.films.com/PortalViewVideo.aspx?xtid=47908&loid=134266Question G: Video – “Drug Abuse Treatment.” (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)http://digital.films.com/PortalViewVideo.aspx?xtid=11409&loid=35267Question H: Objective: (150 word minimum to include opinion and 1 peer reviewed reference)Differentiate between the use of immediate reinforcement and delayed reinforcement.medassistmdlike2say66
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C l i n i ca l Be n av i or Tn e ra
a n a tn e heri me nta l
A n a l si s of Bena v i o r
Joseph J. Plaud and Deborah M. Plaud
The Halcyon Center
Advances in areas of behavior analysis are discussed to show the relevance of experimental science to behavior therapy It 1s concluded that
there are many areas of mutual interest between experimental operant
psychologists and behavior therapists that may serve to enhance the clin·
1cal efficacy and range of behavior problems addressed by behavior therapists Spec1f1c exam1nat1on 1s given to areas of experimental behavior
analysis such as reinforcement. 111clud111g schedules of reinforcement. the
matching law advanced issues 1n stimulus control; the 1nteract 1on between
operant and classical cond1t 10111ng; behavioral momentum. rule-governed
behavior and stimulus equivalence The argument that behavior thera·
p1sts are not knowledgeable about behavior analysis 1s disputed and 1t 1s
concluded that behavior therapists are 1n a u111que pos1t1on to be the
practice professionals best able to utilize the principles of learn111g and
behavior analysis in t he service of adaptive behavior change © 1 998
John Wiley & Sons. Inc. J Clin Psycho! 54 905-92 1. 1998
The experimental and applied anal yse<; of hum an behavior, pre:.ently called behavior analysis by its proponents. cont inues to develop new as,;essment and treatment techniques. Progress i n behavior analysis has much relevance for the pract ice of behavior therapy ( Plaud & Vogeltanz. 1 993). even though :.ome behavior therapi ts (e.g., Marks. 1 98 1 ) have dismissed the argument that behavior therapy grew from ad vances made i n behavioral psychology. A s discu sed by Plaud and Vogeltanz ( 1993). this argument re!.ls upon the a. umption that behav ior therapy associ ated wi th experimen tal behavior anal y- i s as a means of ach ievi ng iden ti ty and Latu s. M arl,.s ( 1981 ) pre.en ted data that indi - cated that members of the A !-.oci ation for Ad vancement of Beh avi or Therapy (AA BT ), a major organization for behavior therapist s. on the ""hole ses or behavior em illed by organ i'>m” by the effect of behavior on the
organism environment ( Plaud & Gaither. 1996). A <;ignificant advancement in our u nderstanding of the nature of reinforcement comes from Lhe experi mental research of Alli,on ( 1983), who defined rei nforcemenl i n terms of re pon'>e deprivation. Accord i ng to Allison. a behavior becomes a rei nforcer if prevailing conti ngencies deprive the emining of
the behavior below i ts free operant ba eline rate.Therefore, for example, a person deprived
of social contact, will i ncrease the em b,sion of other behavior-; if the behavioral conti ngency in effect allows for increased social contacts. This bcha ioral theory i, i mponant
to behavior therapy, because defi ni ng and manipulating reinforcement becomes pm,.,ible
by tudyi ng respon,;e deprivation. Premack ( 1965) hypothesized thaL more frequent behavior serve to reinforce le s frequenl behavior through the mechanism of response probability differential (often called the Premad. principle). The more recent behavioral research
conducted by Allison has now shown tha1 i t b not rel>pOm,e proba bil ity differen1ial per sc,
but response depri vation 1hat accou nts for rei nforcement ( Plaud & Gaither, 1996).
Behavioral re earchers ,uch a Herrnstein ( 1961, 1970) and Mc Dowell ( 1982 ) have
also d iscovered that the way human’> (as well a, rats and pigeons) allocate their behavior
is a direct function of Lhe rei nforcement for that hehavior:
( I)

Jn Equation I . R 1 denoces response rate I and R 2 denote’> response rate 2: r

1 ,tand’> for
reinforcem ent frequency I and r1 for rei nforcement frequency 2. Hcrrnstein termed thi’>
relat ionshi p the matching equation or matchi ng law ( Plaud. 1992).The single alternati ve
matchi ng equation was amended by Hcrrnstei n ( 1970) to apply to all h u man beha’iOr.
when rei nforcers can be identified . Herrntein defined r, a, 1he reinforcem ent rate from
all extraneous sources of reinforcer!> i n the environment. Likewise, Re wa<, defined as all the extraneow, respom,e rates. The equation that Herrnstei n advanced to de,cribe bchm ior in this way has the fol lowi ng form: R= krr + re (2) Equation 2 i s uuall y 1ermcd Herrm,1ein's hyperbola ( McDowell, 1982; Plaud, 1992), where k = R + R .What thi mean, i, that if we know how much rei nforcemen t <,omeone b receivi ng for engaging i n a certain behavior (e.g., c;ocial reinforcement for act ing in a self-i njurious fal.h ion ). we can pred ict how m uch that person will engage i n that behavior, gi ven that reinforcement rate and the rei nforcement for other behavior,. For example, McDowel l ( 1982, 1988) argued that all sources or re111forcement , includ ing extraneou reinforcement for other behaviors, mw,t be considered as i mportant i n understanding why a person behaves in a certai n way in a particular situation. In en, iron mcnts \ here there i very l i ttle rei nforcement (i.e., when re is very small). behavioral change may not necessitate the addition of very large reinforcer . because extraneou'> behaviors will not be
strong d ue 10 the lean rei nforcement.
McDowell ( 1988) illustrated the i mportance of Equation 2 in the ca.,e of a I 0-yearold boy who engaged in <,elf-injurious scratchi ng when he was watchi ng televi,ion wi th hi family. Observing the boy', hehavior. McDowell found 1hat the self-injuriou ,cratching wac; almost completel y descrihed by Equm ion 2. McDowell obc,erved the auention 908 J ournal of Clinical P.1yc/1ology, No1•e111ber 1998 (i.e.. the social rei nforcement) that the boy recei ved when he engaged in particular type.., of self-injuriou., ,cratch ing. and the predictions derived from Eq uat ion 2 corresponded very close!) with the boy actual bcha, ior. Accordi ng to the matching law. the boy· behavior couluch behavior). or by incrcac;i ng 1-ocial reinforcement for other behaviors (e.g., tall,.ing wi th the fam ily. attendi ng to the televi,ion. anl area wi th many possible ram ifications for the Mudy and change of human beha 'ior. A c;ched u lc of rei nforcement i ... the program or ru le that determines how rei nforcer, wi l l be delivered contingen t u pon specified behavi or being emi1te or reinforcement i nfluence not only the rate at wh ich beha 'ior i:, learned. but also how i t is cmi ttehown, and particular rei nforcement schedules also a ffect how beha,ior i, extinguished. Many different types of reinforcement <,ched ule<, ha ve been identified (see Zeiler. 1977 for a more complete review ). However. four basic types or chedules or reinforcement have been studied exten:,i vely i n the laboratory. The first two schedule types are called ratio schedules because reinforcement is contingent upon the number of rei,pom,es made. In a fixed-ratio schedule. t here is a fixed number of responses that must be made for rei nforcement to occur. For example. a fixed-ratio 5 (or FR 5) schedule would con,ist of reinforcement del i vered a fter every five re<,pon-.es made ( hence a fixed response/ reinforcer relationc,h ip exists). In a ariable-ratio schedule of reinforcemenl. ratio., between response rates and delivery of reinforcer'> are varied. For example. in a variable-rat io 5
(or YR 5) schedule the a’< erage nu mber of responses per reinforcement deli"ery i-. 5: however. the actua l ,equence may be 7. 3. 6. 4, 5, and so on ( for an average ratio of 5 responses per reinforcement presentation ). The nex t two ,chedule types are called i nterval schedu le-.. because rei nforcement is contingent upon certai n temporal properties as well a., respom,es. In a fixed-interval schedu le of rei nforcement, a response is rei nforced only if i t occur'> after a set time after
t he pre, ious rei nforcement presentation. The c;et ti me is com,tan t from one rei nforcement
presentat ion LO another. For example, i n a fixed-interva l 3-minute (or Fl 3 mi n ) schedule.
reinforcements alway, occur for the fi r1.t response made a fter 3 mi nutes has elapsed since
the la!’.t reinforcement.
Variable i nten ti schedu le, were w,ed hy Herrnstei n ( 1961 ) and other-. 10 discover
the parameters of the matchi ng law. describe, but the actua l procedu re may consi,t of the following interva ls: 2 minutes. 4 m inutes. 3 mi n utes, and so forth.
Facinati ng to note in tudying chedules or reinforcement i that fai rly ,table pattern, of rei,pondi ng occur under the di fferent ,chedules. Rapid. steady respondi ng occurs

Clinical Beha ,·ior Therapy and the £:rperime11tal Analysis

909

wi th variabl e schedule’> ( Y R .YI ), especially with YR ,chedu les. Fixed schedult::, of rei
n forcemen t produ ce pauses i n respond i ng after re i n forcer del ivery. Howe er. rat io
schedules do not depend on the passage of ti me. only on respon <,e rate. These ratio schedul es prod uce the h ighest respon e rates and are the most d iffa;ul t schedule<, for ext i nct ion of respon ses 10 occur (especially Y R schedules). Extinction refer-. to the decli ne to ba<,cline leveb of a respon se rate once the response i'> no longer rei nforced. l merval schedules
do not typically produce as high a respon se rate as rat i o schedules bccau…e ti me contingencies are al so added i nto the response equat ion .
An important ra m ification of schedu les of reinforcement i’> that it i s crit ical to the
beh avioral cl i nici an 10 exam i ne not on l y certain behav iors. but al..,o the ,chedules or rei
nforcemen t under which such beha,ion; arc em i lled . For example. i f a therapist gi ve” hi s
or her clie111 four homework asign ment’> and one week. to compl ete each assignment. the
client i n thi s case can be aid 10 be under the control of a fi xed-i nterval schedu le. After
complet ing the fiN therapeutic homework assignment. the client wi ll probably take a
break for a coupl e or days (a fi xed-interva l postrcinforcement pau se), pcrhap, wai ting
u ntil the m iddle of the next week 10 begi n the second.and finish i ng it close to the end of
the second weel. and soon for the remai n i ng two week s. Thi<; pancrn of respond- ing is expected gi,en the schedu le of reinforcement in effect. Pauern.., of normal and abnormal behavior are mai ntained by their schedules of reinforcement. As ment ioned, the rate at which beha v ior i'> extinguished or el i m i nated is abo affected
by the schedule of reinforcement under which such behavior wa.., prcvioll’,I) emiu ed. For
example, i n a clinical situat ion parents m ay complain th at their child continually a<;ks for toy when the parems a nd child go shopping together. Upon quest ion ing the parent'> fu rther,
a cl i n ician discerns that the pa rent.., at ti mes refu se the child”> request.and then at other
times (however infrequent) gi ve i n 10 the child and pu rch ase a toy. b i t any wonder that
the child ‘,; behavior of con ti nuall y a,king for tor, per-,ist s given the ari able-ratio
schedule of reinf’orcemem the child’s; verbal behavior i ‘> controlled by in thi ‘> case’?

STI MULUS CO NTROL O F H U MAN BEHAVIOR
Stimulus control is also a vast area of interesting experimental rel>carch wi th man y cl inical i m pl ications for behavior therapi,;ts. Behavior analysis is an ell ironment -rcsponseconsequence contextu al system. Response!> and their con’>equences do not occur in isolation .
but rather i n the context of a gi ven set of en v ironmenta l st imul i. One i m portant consequence of such an a lyses i s that behavior occurs within certai n en i ronmenral domains
and may vary qu ite dramat ical l y as en viron ments change.
I f a person responds i n one way in a given sti mul u s situation and then acts differently
i n another . Limul u s situation , we can ‘>late that ,uch a person has come u nder differentia l
sti mulw, control. Mi schel ( 1968) was one of the fiN clin ical researchers lo show that
global tra it l abels given 10 people did not account for much vari ance i n studies of human
bcha,·ior.Complex ‘sti mul u s di cri mi nation ha.., been ‘ihown to exist i n an i mab (cf. Reynolds, 1961 ) as well as humans.
Stimulu general ization is a not her i nteresti n g aspect of sti mul u s control. When an
organism does not d ifferenti ally respond to different en vironmental ,timu li , !>Li mu l usgeneral i Lalion can be said 10 exist. Experi mental researchers(cf. Domjand & Burkhard. 1986)
have shown that general i zation grad ient& appear when different stimuli are used.As stimuli
physically begin to di ffer from the origi nal sti mu lus under which a respon se i s emilled, i t
ha., been found that the greater the differencebetween a new st imul us and the origi nal stimul us the less responding subsequently occurs. The data plots of general ization gradients
usu ally look l ike rough bell -sh aped curves (with the original sti mul u s in the center).

9/0

Jo11mal of Cli11ical Psychology, Nm•ember 1998

Differem theorics have been ad vanced to explain st i m u lus general iLation . For example. Pav lov ( 19’27J theorized that irradiation or exci tation i n the brain centers (Lo nearby
brai n centerq underlay cla-.sical gencral i,ation . Lm,hley and Wade ( 1946) hypothesized
t hat i i was not irrad iation but rather pat sensory experience wi th stimul i that enhanced
d i..,crimi na1ion abilitie’>. More research is needed to exa mine critically the mechan b,ms of
discrimi nation and general i,ation.
Another i mportan t area of potential mut ual interest research concerns multiple schedules of reinforcement. Recal l that i n concurrent schedules two or more choices were
offered simultaneou’>ly. I n multiple ,chedules there arc sequence., of different schedules,
each denoted by appropriate en vironmental ,timuli (each set of re,pon<;cs i, under d ... Purchase answer to see full attachment

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