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4.
Refer to figure 5.1 What are some of the advantages of the concurrent approach
in design? Identify some of the problems that could occur in its implementation.
The most obvious advantage of having a concurrent approach to design is that many steps
are being completed at once instead of waiting through a serialized method. This is
excellent in any situation where there is a hold on a certain segment of the design tree and
there is a deadline to meet. Since feedback can happen while prototyping is going on, for
example, the engineers can work on each segment independently of the others and allow
them to
13. What are some of the differences between a mock-up, an engineering model, and a
prototype?
A mock-up is different than an engineering model or prototype because it only has to
physically resemble the final product and has no real function. The mock-up is typically a
life-sized physical object that has all the dimensions of the proposed final product.
Otherwise, it does not have any mechanical significance. The engineering model is typically
serially the next step in the process and consists of an object that has all the mechanical
functions of the final product. It is not intended to fit the dimensions of the mock-up and
instead serves as a technological piece that engages with input-output data. The prototype
is a mixture of the first two models. It is both dimensionally correct and a fully operational
piece. The only thing separating it from being the final product is trials and testing. It is the
whole fit form and function of the final product, but without proving itself it is still just a
prototype.
18.
What determines whether or not a given design review has been successful?
By going back to tools we were exposed to in previous chapters like TPM, we can
determine whether a design review was successful. By testing the prototype against a
predetermined goal for performance, we can examine the effectiveness of the product.
Some metrics may call for a 90% performance match. Others might be more lenient. If the
prototype has performed adequately based on the TPM numbers, we can determine then if
it was a successful design review.
21. What is configuration management? When can it be implemented? Why is important?
Configuration management can be implemented from the start of a project. It is important
because it allows for a smooth transition to an updated prototype. Basically, it is a method
of guiding development by making room for alterations in the future. If one part of the
product has to be enlarged, for example, the other parts or software will probably need an
update too. Good configuration management takes all of this into account and can even be
used to create systems where a major change to one part will be isolated and not affect any
of the other parts.
22.
Why is baseline management so important in the implementation of the systems
engineering process?
Baseline management gives engineers a clear target for the bare minimum performance
metrics that the project requires. This is extremely important because it lets engineers
know how far they can degrade certain aspects of the product without hurting the final
desired function. The systems engineering process seeks to balance all the metrics of an
operation simultaneously and by having baseline management, it is not at risk of falling
short in one area or another.
5.
What special test requirements should be established for systems operating
within a higher-level system-of-systems (SOS) structure? Identify the steps required to
ensure compatibility with the other systems in the SOS configuration.
In the test item selection phase, external items from other supporting SOS systems must
also be selected if they are vital to the operation of the system being tested. Procedures for
these test items must be imported to the procedures for the tested system as well. Deviation
from procedures can lead to human error and distort test data and outcomes. A test site
must be determined as well. For an SOS system, this site is typically the one where the
other systems items are housed. However it can also be brought at higher cost to a new
location if it needs to be tested under particular weather conditions for example. Like if a
system needs to be made viable in arctic weather or a dust storm, the necessary
arrangements can be made. The personnel who test the system must be chosen as well.
These include the personnel who maintain the system and equipment during the test as well
as support personnel like engineers, technicians and the like. The person operating the
system should have a similar background to the intended consumer. There must also be
appropriate facilities, instrumentation, apparati and associated resources like heat or water
to properly conduct a test. These must include accommodations for the external items that
require special resources in order to outfit the SOS properly. Test and support equipment
must also be present for the system tested as well as support for the external items. For
supply support and the procurement of spare parts to maintain the inventory of the
support system, an SOS system needs to also have supply support set up for the external
pieces.
11.
What data are required to measure the following: cost effectiveness, system
effectiveness, operational availability, life-cycle cost, reliability and maintainability?
The data that needs to be acquired to have an accurate measure of cost effectiveness,
system effectiveness, operational availability, life-cycle cost, reliability and maintainability
includes characteristic data for the primary mission as well as its support structure. It is
important to understand what factors need to be measured and what information needs to
be acquired. In order to verify cost and system effectiveness TPMs must be used. They help
the observer to determine which pockets of data are important and where the emphasis on
data collection should be. TPMs should have been established in an earlier step so it should
be a matter of going back and exploring what these metrics were before going forward with
data collection. The data collection should mimic the same metrics that the TPMs laid out
in earlier preparation. Operational availability metrics should also be taken into account
and data for these should be collected as well. Life-cycle metrics should be collected too in
order to determine the cost over time for the proposed system. There should be a database
that is equipped for both storage and data retrieval. Also if there are special data requests
there should be an assessment for the existing system as well as design and development of
new system/ equipment. Data that is directly applicable to the new system design and
development can be harnessed by these methods. The data retrieval system should be
lumped together with a formatting, sorting and processing system. The primary motivation
for data collection should be modeled around the TPM structure and the priority of the
items on that chart.
13.
How would you measure and evaluate system sustainability?
As long as the proper data is recorded, evaluating system sustainability is just a matter of
examining the feedback produced. It is important that the right information be reported
and fed back to the responsible engineering and management personnel in an expeditious
manner. They need to know exactly how the system is performing against specification s in
the field quickly, so that design modifications can be initiated. The process includes data
collection, analysis, reporting and then most importantly feedback. The primary objective
is to find just how well the system is performing in the user’s operational environment and
secondly to find any problems that may be detected to initiate the required steps for
corrective action and incorporation of necessary design changes and system modifications.
The results of the data collection, analysis, reporting and feedback may indicate that there
is a problem pertaining to not meeting a given TPM requirement. Through deeper analysis,
the proper cause-and-effect relationships are established and results may point to a
deficiency in an element of prime equipment like a software module, an element of the
maintenance support infrastructure, an interface problem with one or more other systems
within the same SOS, or some other procedure or process. With this data you can measure
the sustainability of a system.
Part A. Concept Selection Develop a concept selection matrix and use the pugh method to
choose the best alternative from at least three available options. Identify at least three criteria
and assign weights to each of them. Identify which concept is the best and discuss why it is the
best.
Selection
CriteriaConcept
Baseline
Design Concept
A
Design Concept
B
Design Concept
C
Cost
S
+
+
S
Ease of use
S
–
+
+
Maintenance
S
S
–
+
TOTAL +
0
1
2
2
TOTAL –
0
1
1
0
TOTAL SCORE
0
0
1
2
Based on my selection criteria, my results seem to indicate the Design Concept C would be the
best. This is because it excels over two criteria compared to the baseline. While design B
excels in two criteria as well, the maintainence factor makes it detract, which is the basis of
comparison between Designs B and C. The total score on C outweighs all else, and therefore
we must accept C as the better choice.
Part B. DODAF Views Using DODAF 2.02 standard, identify three views that would be helpful
for your final project and describe what information each of them can provide.
http://dodcio.defense.gov/TodayinCIO/DoDArchitectureFramework.aspx
PV-1: Project Portfolio Relationships would be extremely useful because it would help identify
the variety of dependencies that exist within the project and how each piece of the project fits in
with the others.
PV-2: Project Timelines would be another great piece to the presentation because it adds a
temporal element to the project and holds the progress of the project accountable to a real and
defined schedule.
Fusion View: Non-prescriptive, Illustrative High-level Concept Description. This is a great view
for getting a 30,000 ft view of the project and understanding how the grander vision of the
project should look when all the pieces are put together and when everything is finished
Part C. DODAF Diagram Develop a diagram or matrix of one of the views described in Part B
using your robot as the example.
16. Identify a multiple criteria decision situation with which you have experience. Select the
three to five most important criteria.
It is extremely rare that there is only a single criterion when considering a decision. The outcome
of a decision can be better valued not just on the outcome of the single criterion tested, but the
outcome of all the connecting criteria as well. Recently, I had to make a multiple criteria decision
based around my commute to college. I had to decide how I was going to get to and from classes.
The most important criteria I identified was the cost of a new vehicle, the other means of getting
to class, the commute time, the maintenance costs, and safety.
In this multiple-criteria decision, I made the choice of getting a car because it was highly
preferred in many different scenarios.
17. Discuss the degree to which you think the criteria you selected in Question 16 are truly
independent. Weight each criterion, check for consistency, and then normalize the weight
so that the total sums to 100. Use the method of paired comparisons to rank the criteria in
order of decreasing importance.
There is a large degree of independence with the variables I chose for Question 16. Each item
can be considered on its own merits. However, certain items have a large impact on the others.
Commute time which is highly altered whether you are traveling by bus or by car, for example.
Your choice of alternative travel can highly affect your safety as well. So while all the items
have some degree of independence, there is no escaping the fact that they have an influence on
one another.
Criterion
Importance Rating (1
to 10)
Additive Weight
(Out of 100)
Cost of Vehicle
10
29
Alt. Travel
5
14
Commute Time
10
29
Maintenance Costs
6
17
Safety
4
11
1>2 2<3 3>4 4<5 1>3 2<4 3>5
1=4 2<5 1=5 Paired Comparisons Criteria (1) (2)Alt. (3)Commute (4)Mainte-nance (5)Safety Times Cost of Travel Time Costs Preferred Vehicl e (1) Cost of Vehicle - P (2)Alt. Travel (3)Commute Time P = = - 0 P P (4)Mainte-nance = Costs P - (5)Safety P P = 2++ - P P 4 1+ - 2+ Rank: 3 > 1 > 5 > 4 > 2
20. A Specialty software development firm is planning to offer one of four new software
products and wishes to maximize profit, minimize risk, and increase market share. A
weight of 65% is assigned to annual profit potential, 20% to profitability risk, and 15% to
market share. Use the tabular additive method for this situation and identify the product
that would be best for the firm to introduce.
[chart]
Tabular Additive Method
SW I
SW II
SW
III
SW
IV
Criterion Weigh
t (W)
Rating
(R)
W
x
R
Rating W x Rating
(R)
R
(R)
W
x
R
Rating W x
(R)
R
Profit
Potential
0.65
4
2.6
9
5.85
10
6.5
7
4.55
Profit
RIsk
0.20
7
1.4
8
1.6
5
1
6
1.2
Market
Share
0.15
10
1.5
5
.75
2
.3
5
.75
1.00
5.5
8.2
7.8
6.5
In this scenario, the product SW II is determined to be the best choice if we adhere to the tabular
additive method.
35. The cost of developing an internal training program for office automation is unknown
but described by the following probability distribution:
[chart]
What is the expected cost of the course? What is the most probable cost? What is the
maximum cost that will occur with a 95% assurance?
Expected Cost: $100,250
Most Probable Cost: $95,000
Maximum Cost With 95% Assurance: $115,000
39. The following payoff matrix indicates the costs associated with three decision options
and four states of nature:
[chart]
Select the decision option that should be selected under the maximum rule; the maximax
rule; the Laplace rule; the minimax regret rule; and the Hurwicz rule with alpha = 0.2 .
How do the rules applied to the cost matrix differ from those that are applied to a payoff
matrix of profits?
Maximin: Option 3 because it has the lowest cost at 10.
Maximax: Option 1 because it has the lowest cost at 35
Laplace: Option 1 because it has the lowest average cost at 27.5.
Hurwicz:
Alternative
O1
.2(20)+.8(35)
32
O2
.2(20)+.8(40)
36
O3
.2(10)+.8(60)
50
Option 1 because it has the lowest cost of 32.
1. How much money must be invested to accumulate $10,000 in 8 years at 6% compounded
annually?
A = P(1+(r/n))^nt
10,000 = P(1+(.06/1)^8
10,000 = p(1.59)
p = $6274.12
6. What interest rate compounded annually is involved if $4000 results in $10,000 in 6 years?
10000 = 4000(1+r)^6
2.5 = (1+r)^6
2.5^(1/6) = 1 + r
1.16= 1 + r
r = .16 = 16%
15. The design of a system is to be pursued from one of two available alternatives. Each
alternative as a life-cycle cost associated with an expected future. The costs for the
corresponding futures are given in the following table (in millions of dollars). If the probabilities
of occurrence of the futures are 30% 50% and 20%, respectively, which alternative is most
desirable from an expected cost viewpoint? Use an interest rate of 10%.
CHART
I tabulated the expected futures for each design in excel
Design 1
Future
Probability
1
2
3
4
5
6
Optimistic
0.3 0.6 0.6
5
7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
19.6 5.88
Expected
0.5 0.6 0.8
1
5
10
1
24.4 12.2
Pessimisti
c
0.2 0.8 0.9
1
7
10 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
28.1 5.62
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
10
1
11
1
12 SUM
TOTA
L
E(x)
23.7
Design 2
Future
Probabilit
y
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12 SUM
E(x)
Optimistic
0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
1 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
22.7
6.81
Expected
0.5 0.6 0.8
1
3 6
3
32.4
16.2
Pessimisti
c
0.2 0.6 0.8
1
5 6 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1
35.1
7.02
TOTA
L
30.03
3
3
3
TOTAL
3
3
3
I will admit I forgot what to do with the interest rate. I was able to calculate that Design 2 will
have a higher futures than design 1, after calculating the weighted average expected value.
How the value of futures relates to cost I am not sure, but I assume that the highest cost
alternative has the highest futures so Design 2 must be the correct answer.
29. A certain processing center has the capacity to assemble 650,000 units per year . At
present, it is operating at 65% capacity. The annual income is $416,000. Annual fixed cost is
$192,000 and the variable cost is $0.38 per unit assembled
a.
What is the annual profit or loss attributable to the center
Profit (P) = Revenue (R) – Cost (C)
= $416E3 – $192E3-0.65*650E3*0.38
= $63,450 profit
b.
P
At what volume of output does the center break even?
= R – C (for breakeven, profit = 0)
=0
= $416E3 – $192E3-0.65*x*0.38
è x = 224000000/247 = 906882.59 ~ 906883 units
c. What will be the profit or loss at 70%, 80%, and 90% of capacity on the basis of constant
income per unit and constant variable cost per unit?
Capacity
70%
Profit
416E3 – 192E3-0.7*650E3*0.38= $51100
80%
416E3 – 192E3-0.8*650E3*0.38 = $26400
90%
416E3 – 192E3-0.9*650E3*0.38= $1700
2.
What is meant by DTC? When in the system life cycle should it be applied? How does I
relate to the TPMs identified in Section 3.5?
DTC stands for design to cost which includes the idea of designing the system or at least describing its
costs proactively, rather than after the fact. It should be applied, according to the book, at the system
level. So every aspect such as the planning stage, the preliminary design, the detailed design, and the
production and disposal support definition should have some level of cost analysis.
9. What is activity-based costing? Why is it important (if at all)? What are some of the differences
between this method of costing and some of the more conventional approaches?
Activity based costing is when you look at the cost of every piece of the system and tie it back (traceably)
to the core activity that is attempted to be accomplished by that cost. It is important because many
management situations prior to the introduction of this method had all sorts of ambiguous costs like
overhead and other generic and untraceable factors. As a result, this method attempts to exhaustively
itemize each cost in the planning phase such that nothing is attributed to waste. Some of the more
conventional approaches like “estimating” are a bit imprecise because they involve some level of
guesswork that doesn’t necessarily breakdown every element of cost in every activity.
12. Fig 17.13 What is meant by parametric cost estimating? How would you develop costestimating relationships?
Parametric cost estimating refers to “rule of thumb” flavors of cost estimating which involves past
heuristic approaches that relate each cost to some variable referred to in the book as “explanatory
variables.” I interpret this as costs that are meant to explain or justify a particular activity or action based
on experience with this particular type of system. It is a function of the attributes of the systems such as
physical attributes and performance options. I would first look at rates of costs associated with my
system. For example the book mentions costs added for each unit of speed of a vehicle. To me this could
refer to microchips that go inside my iPhone, or even m clicker system for my final project. We can
estimate a cost element that relates how much my clicker prototype will cost per chip I decide to
incorporate in it. Then I can do the same with all the other components until I have described every unit
of the system I am developing.
13. Describe what is meant by a learning curve? How are learning curves developed? How can
they be applied? What are some of the cautions that need to be addressed in applying a learning
curve?
…
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