Expert answer:Discuss how the religious and social issues of Eur
Expert answer:Discuss how the religious and social issues of Europe helped to define and segregate the early American colonies.Your response must be at least 200 words in length.No references must be completely original the professor does not want any references on this assginment
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Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
Figure 2.10 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1772-84), by François Dubois, shows the horrific violence of the
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. In this scene, French Catholic troops slaughter French Protestant Calvinists.
2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Identify regions where the English, French, and Dutch explored and established
settlements
• Describe the differences among the early colonies
• Explain the role of the American colonies in European nations’ struggles for
domination
For Europeans, the discovery of an Atlantic World meant newfound wealth in the form of gold and silver
as well as valuable furs. The Americas also provided a new arena for intense imperial rivalry as different
European nations jockeyed for preeminence in the New World. The religious motives for colonization
spurred European expansion as well, and as the Protestant Reformation gained ground beginning in the
1520s, rivalries between Catholic and Protestant Christians spilled over into the Americas.
ENGLISH EXPLORATION
Disruptions during the Tudor monarchy—especially the creation of the Protestant Church of England
by Henry VIII in the 1530s, the return of the nation to Catholicism under Queen Mary in the 1550s,
and the restoration of Protestantism under Queen Elizabeth—left England with little energy for overseas
projects. More important, England lacked the financial resources for such endeavors. Nonetheless, English
monarchs carefully monitored developments in the new Atlantic World and took steps to assert England’s
claim to the Americas. As early as 1497, Henry VII of England had commissioned John Cabot, an Italian
mariner, to explore new lands. Cabot sailed from England that year and made landfall somewhere along
the North American coastline. For the next century, English fishermen routinely crossed the Atlantic to
fish the rich waters off the North American coast. However, English colonization efforts in the 1500s were
closer to home, as England devoted its energy to the colonization of Ireland.
Queen Elizabeth favored England’s advance into the Atlantic World, though her main concern was
blocking Spain’s effort to eliminate Protestantism. Indeed, England could not commit to large-scale
colonization in the Americas as long as Spain appeared ready to invade Ireland or Scotland. Nonetheless,
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Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
47
Elizabeth approved of English privateers, sea captains to whom the home government had given
permission to raid the enemy at will. These skilled mariners cruised the Caribbean, plundering Spanish
ships whenever they could. Each year the English took more than £100,000 from Spain in this way; English
privateer Francis Drake first made a name for himself when, in 1573, he looted silver, gold, and pearls
worth £40,000.
Elizabeth did sanction an early attempt at colonization in 1584, when Sir Walter Raleigh, a favorite of
the queen’s, attempted to establish a colony at Roanoke, an island off the coast of present-day North
Carolina. The colony was small, consisting of only 117 people, who suffered a poor relationship with the
local Indians, the Croatans, and struggled to survive in their new land (Figure 2.11). Their governor,
John White, returned to England in late 1587 to secure more people and supplies, but events conspired
to keep him away from Roanoke for three years. By the time he returned in 1590, the entire colony had
vanished. The only trace the colonists left behind was the word Croatoan carved into a fence surrounding
the village. Governor White never knew whether the colonists had decamped for nearby Croatoan Island
(now Hatteras) or whether some disaster had befallen them all. Roanoke is still called “the lost colony.”
Figure 2.11 In 1588, a promoter of English colonization named Thomas Hariot published A Briefe and True Report
of the New Found Land of Virginia, which contained many engravings of the native peoples who lived on the Carolina
coast in the 1580s. This print, “The brovvyllinge of their fishe ouer the flame” (1590) by Theodor de Bry, shows the
ingenuity and wisdom of the “savages” of the New World. (credit: UNC Chapel Hill)
English promoters of colonization pushed its commercial advantages and the religious justification that
English colonies would allow the establishment of Protestantism in the Americas. Both arguments struck a
chord. In the early 1600s, wealthy English merchants and the landed elite began to pool their resources to
form joint stock companies. In this novel business arrangement, which was in many ways the precursor
to the modern corporation, investors provided the capital for and assumed the risk of a venture in order
to reap significant returns. The companies gained the approval of the English crown to establish colonies,
and their investors dreamed of reaping great profits from the money they put into overseas colonization.
The first permanent English settlement was established by a joint stock company, the Virginia Company.
Named for Elizabeth, the “virgin queen,” the company gained royal approval to establish a colony on the
east coast of North America, and in 1606, it sent 144 men and boys to the New World. In early 1607, this
group sailed up Chesapeake Bay. Finding a river they called the James in honor of their new king, James
I, they established a ramshackle settlement and named it Jamestown. Despite serious struggles, the colony
survived.
Many of Jamestown’s settlers were desperate men; although they came from elite families, they were
younger sons who would not inherit their father’s estates. The Jamestown adventurers believed they
would find instant wealth in the New World and did not actually expect to have to perform work. Henry
Percy, the eighth son of the Earl of Northumberland, was among them. His account, excerpted below,
illustrates the hardships the English confronted in Virginia in 1607.
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Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
MY STORY
George Percy and the First Months at Jamestown
The 144 men and boys who started the Jamestown colony faced many hardships; by the end of the first
winter, only 38 had survived. Disease, hunger, and poor relationships with local natives all contributed
to the colony’s high death toll. George Percy, who served twice as governor of Jamestown, kept records
of the colonists’ first months in the colony. These records were later published in London in 1608. This
excerpt is from his account of August and September of 1607.
The fourth day of September died Thomas Jacob Sergeant. The fifth day, there died Benjamin
Beast. Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases, as Swellings, Fluxes, Burning Fevers,
and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine.
There were never Englishmen left in a foreign Country in such misery as we were in this new
discovered Virginia. . . . Our food was but a small Can of Barley sod* in water, to five men a
day, our drink cold water taken out of the River, which was at a flood very salty, at a low tide
full of slime and filth, which was the destruction of many of our men. Thus we lived for the
space of five months in this miserable distress, not having five able men to man our Bulwarks
upon any occasion. If it had not pleased God to have put a terror in the Savages’ hearts, we
had all perished by those wild and cruel Pagans, being in that weak estate as we were; our
men night and day groaning in every corner of the Fort most pitiful to hear. If there were any
conscience in men, it would make their hearts to bleed to hear the pitiful murmurings and
outcries of our sick men without relief, every night and day, for the space of six weeks, some
departing out of the World, many times three or four in a night; in the morning, their bodies
trailed out of their Cabins like Dogs to be buried. In this sort did I see the mortality of diverse
of our people.
*soaked
According to George Percy’s account, what were the major problems the Jamestown settlers
encountered? What kept the colony from complete destruction?
By any measure, England came late to the race to colonize. As Jamestown limped along in the 1610s, the
Spanish Empire extended around the globe and grew rich from its global colonial project. Yet the English
persisted, and for this reason the Jamestown settlement has a special place in history as the first permanent
colony in what later became the United States.
After Jamestown’s founding, English colonization of the New World accelerated. In 1609, a ship bound
for Jamestown foundered in a storm and landed on Bermuda. (Some believe this incident helped inspire
Shakespeare’s 1611 play The Tempest.) The admiral of the ship, George Somers, claimed the island for the
English crown. The English also began to colonize small islands in the Caribbean, an incursion into the
Spanish American empire. They established themselves on small islands such as St. Christopher (1624),
Barbados (1627), Nevis (1628), Montserrat (1632), and Antigua (1632).
From the start, the English West Indies had a commercial orientation, for these islands produced cash
crops: first tobacco and then sugar. Very quickly, by the mid-1600s, Barbados had become one of the most
important English colonies because of the sugar produced there. Barbados was the first English colony
dependent on slaves, and it became a model for other English slave societies on the American mainland.
These differed radically from England itself, where slavery was not practiced.
English Puritans also began to colonize the Americas in the 1620s and 1630s. These intensely religious
migrants dreamed of creating communities of reformed Protestantism where the corruption of England
would be eliminated. One of the first groups of Puritans to remove to North America, known as Pilgrims
and led by William Bradford, had originally left England to live in the Netherlands. Fearing their children
were losing their English identity among the Dutch, however, they sailed for North America in 1620 to
settle at Plymouth, the first English settlement in New England. The Pilgrims differed from other Puritans
in their insistence on separating from what they saw as the corrupt Church of England. For this reason,
This OpenStax book is available for free at https://cnx.org/content/col11740/1.3
Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
49
Pilgrims are known as Separatists.
Like Jamestown, Plymouth occupies an iconic place in American national memory. The tale of the 102
migrants who crossed the Atlantic aboard the Mayflower and their struggle for survival is a well-known
narrative of the founding of the country. Their story includes the signing of the Mayflower Compact, a
written agreement whereby the English voluntarily agreed to help each other. Some interpret this 1620
document as an expression of democratic spirit because of the cooperative and inclusive nature of the
agreement to live and work together. In 1630, a much larger contingent of Puritans left England to escape
conformity to the Church of England and founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the following years,
thousands more arrived to create a new life in the rocky soils and cold climates of New England.
In comparison to Catholic Spain, however, Protestant England remained a very weak imperial player in
the early seventeenth century, with only a few infant colonies in the Americas in the early 1600s. The
English never found treasure equal to that of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán, and England did not quickly
grow rich from its small American outposts. The English colonies also differed from each other; Barbados
and Virginia had a decidedly commercial orientation from the start, while the Puritan colonies of New
England were intensely religious at their inception. All English settlements in America, however, marked
the increasingly important role of England in the Atlantic World.
FRENCH EXPLORATION
Spanish exploits in the New World whetted the appetite of other would-be imperial powers, including
France. Like Spain, France was a Catholic nation and committed to expanding Catholicism around the
globe. In the early sixteenth century, it joined the race to explore the New World and exploit the resources
of the Western Hemisphere. Navigator Jacques Cartier claimed northern North America for France,
naming the area New France. From 1534 to 1541, he made three voyages of discovery on the Gulf of St.
Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River. Like other explorers, Cartier made exaggerated claims of mineral
wealth in America, but he was unable to send great riches back to France. Due to resistance from the
native peoples as well as his own lack of planning, he could not establish a permanent settlement in North
America.
Explorer Samuel de Champlain occupies a special place in the history of the Atlantic World for his role
in establishing the French presence in the New World. Champlain explored the Caribbean in 1601 and
then the coast of New England in 1603 before traveling farther north. In 1608 he founded Quebec, and he
made numerous Atlantic crossings as he worked tirelessly to promote New France. Unlike other imperial
powers, France—through Champlain’s efforts—fostered especially good relationships with native
peoples, paving the way for French exploration further into the continent: around the Great Lakes, around
Hudson Bay, and eventually to the Mississippi. Champlain made an alliance with the Huron confederacy
and the Algonquins and agreed to fight with them against their enemy, the Iroquois (Figure 2.12).
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Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
Figure 2.12 In this engraving, titled Defeat of the Iroquois and based on a drawing by explorer Samuel de
Champlain, Champlain is shown fighting on the side of the Huron and Algonquins against the Iroquois. He portrays
himself in the middle of the battle, firing a gun, while the native people around him shoot arrows at each other. What
does this engraving suggest about the impact of European exploration and settlement on the Americas?
The French were primarily interested in establishing commercially viable colonial outposts, and to that
end, they created extensive trading networks in New France. These networks relied on native hunters to
harvest furs, especially beaver pelts, and to exchange these items for French glass beads and other trade
goods. (French fashion at the time favored broad-brimmed hats trimmed in beaver fur, so French traders
had a ready market for their North American goods.) The French also dreamed of replicating the wealth of
Spain by colonizing the tropical zones. After Spanish control of the Caribbean began to weaken, the French
turned their attention to small islands in the West Indies, and by 1635 they had colonized two, Guadeloupe
and Martinique. Though it lagged far behind Spain, France now boasted its own West Indian colonies.
Both islands became lucrative sugar plantation sites that turned a profit for French planters by relying on
African slave labor.
Click and Explore
To see how cartographers throughout history documented the exploration of the
Atlantic World, browse the hundreds of digitized historical maps that make up the
collection American Shores: Maps of the Middle Atlantic Region to 1850
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/nypl) at the New York Public Library.
DUTCH COLONIZATION
Dutch entrance into the Atlantic World is part of the larger story of religious and imperial conflict in the
early modern era. In the 1500s, Calvinism, one of the major Protestant reform movements, had found
adherents in the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands. During the sixteenth century, these
provinces began a long struggle to achieve independence from Catholic Spain. Established in 1581 but
not recognized as independent by Spain until 1648, the Dutch Republic, or Holland, quickly made itself
a powerful force in the race for Atlantic colonies and wealth. The Dutch distinguished themselves as
This OpenStax book is available for free at https://cnx.org/content/col11740/1.3
Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
51
commercial leaders in the seventeenth century (Figure 2.13), and their mode of colonization relied on
powerful corporations: the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1602 to trade in Asia, and the Dutch
West India Company, established in 1621 to colonize and trade in the Americas.
Figure 2.13 Amsterdam was the richest city in the world in the 1600s. In Courtyard of the Exchange in Amsterdam,
a 1653 painting by Emanuel de Witt, merchants involved in the global trade eagerly attend to news of shipping and
the prices of commodities.
While employed by the Dutch East India Company in 1609, the English sea captain Henry Hudson
explored New York Harbor and the river that now bears his name. Like many explorers of the time,
Hudson was actually seeking a northwest passage to Asia and its wealth, but the ample furs harvested
from the region he explored, especially the coveted beaver pelts, provided a reason to claim it for the
Netherlands. The Dutch named their colony New Netherlands, and it served as a fur-trading outpost
for the expanding and powerful Dutch West India Company. With headquarters in New Amsterdam
on the island of Manhattan, the Dutch set up several regional trading posts, including one at Fort
Orange—named for the royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau—in present-day Albany. (The color orange
remains significant to the Dutch, having become particularly associated with William of Orange,
Protestantism, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.) A brisk trade in furs with local Algonquian and
Iroquois peoples brought the Dutch and native peoples together in a commercial network that extended
throughout the Hudson River Valley and beyond.
The Dutch West India Company in turn established colonies on Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, St. Martin,
St. Eustatius, and Saba. With their outposts in New Netherlands and the Caribbean, the Dutch had
established themselves in the seventeenth century as a commercially powerful rival to Spain. Amsterdam
became a trade hub for all the Atlantic World.
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Chapter 2 | Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650
2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the
Columbian Exchange
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe how Europeans solved their labor problems
• Describe the theory of mercantilism and the process of commodification
• Analyze the effects of the Columbian Exchange
European promoters of colonization claimed the Americas overflowed with a wealth of treasures.
Burnishing national glory and honor became entwined with carving out colonies, and no nation wanted
to be left behind. However, the realities of life in the Americas—violence, exploitation, and particularly
the need for workers—were soon driving the practice of slavery and forced labor. Everywhere in America
a stark contrast existed between freedom and slavery. The Columbian Exchange, in which Europeans
transported plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic in both directions, also left a lasting
impression on the Americas.
LABOR SYSTEMS
Physical power—to work the fields, build villages, process raw materials—is a necessity for maintaining a
society. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, humans could derive power only from the wind,
water, animals, or other humans. Everywhere in the Americas, a crushing demand for labor bedeviled
Europeans because there were not enough colonists to perform the work necessary to keep the colonies
going. Spain granted encomiendas—legal rights to native labor—to conquistadors who could prove their
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