Expert answer:Response to intervention
Solved by verified expert:Chapter 12 in your text details the Response-to-Intervention program that is being used in schools throughout the United States to provide a criteria for the early identification of students in need of additional supports before referrals for special education would be made and to provide progressively intense levels of support for students who meet specific criteria.Self-management strategies were presented in Chapter 7. These strategies help students control their own behaviors. These strategies can be added to the intervention supports in the Secondary Tier of Response-to-Intervention.Using your knowledge of Response-to-Intervention, discuss the following:1. Explain how NCLB 2001 and IDEA 2004 encouraged the Response-to-Intervention program. Discuss how Response-to-Intervention meets the federal mandate for educators to use “scientifically-based research methods in instruction and interventions” (Shepherd & Linn, 2014, p. 253).2. Identify the three tiers of the Response-to-Intervention program and describe the characteristics of each. How can self-management techniques be included in the Secondary Tier?3. Discuss the concerns some have regarding the effectiveness of Response-to-Intervention.Read the following chapters in your text:Chapter 7: “Cognitive Behavior Management”Chapter 7 introduces you to cognitive behavior management and the strategies that teachers can implement in the classroom to help students “control their own behaviors” (Shepherd & Linn, 2014, p. 157). Considered a “proactive strategy” in classroom management, cognitive behavior management includes “self-management techniques” that “include goal-setting, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement” (Shepherd & Linn, 2014, p. 157). You will discover that these strategies can be incorporated into the Secondary Tier of a Response-to-Intervention program. This Tier focuses on the needs of “at risk” students (Shepherd & Linn, 2014, p. 256).Chapter 12: “Response-to-Intervention”Chapter 12 introduces you to the Response-to-Intervention program that is being implemented in many schools throughout the United States. A detailed explanation of this three-tiered, progressively intense, approach to the provision of services for students with academic and behavior problems is presented (Shepherd & Linn, 2014, 264). Information is presented regarding the impact this program has on culturally and linguistically diverse students, as well as the criteria used to identify students for each tier of service provision. Each tier is explained in detail and rationales are provided for the use of this approach to intervention.ONLY USE THE TEXTBOOK AS THE SOURCE FFOR REFERENCES. 400 words min. NO PLAGIARISM. References and citations required. Textbook reference: Shepherd, L., T. and Linn, D. (2015). Behavior and Classroom Management in the Multicultural Classroom. Sage publications
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Cognitive Behavior Management
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Define cognitive behavior management.
• Explain the importance of goal setting for a cognitive behavior management program.
• Describe the steps a teacher uses when training a student to self-instruct.
• Delineate the steps for implementing self-monitoring strategies with students.
• Describe how to teach students to use self-evaluation and self-reinforcement as part of
a behavior management plan.
• Understand how teachers can use strategies to help students manage anger and stress.
Defining Cognitive Behavior Management
Cognitive behavior management is the use of intervention strategies designed to teach
students to control their own behaviors. Through cognitive behavior management, students
are taught how their behaviors create ripple effects that affect their relationships with others
and their academic and behavior outcomes, just as dropping a pebble in still waters creates
ripples emanating outward that affect everything in their path.
Under a universal design for classroom management, cognitive behavior management is a
proactive strategy. Teaching students to manage their own behaviors can prevent the
occurrence of behavior difficulties in the classroom. When students can manage their own
behaviors, they do not rely on external controls (Rafferty, 2010) such as nonverbal and verbal
interventions, reinforcements, and token economies.
Implementing a Self-Management Plan
Self-management techniques may be effective alternatives to teacher-mediated interventions
in reducing incidents of disruptive behavior (Briesch & Chafouleas, 2009). Selfmanagement is an umbrella term that includes a number of techniques specifically designed
to teach students to control their own behaviors (Chafouleas, Hagermoser Sanetti, Jaffery, &
Fallon, 2012). Much of the research conducted on self-management has involved students
with disabilities; however, self-management techniques have also been found to be effective
for students without disabilities (Moore, Anderson, Glassenbury, Lang, & Didden, 2013).
Self-management techniques vary in a number of ways, but common features among these
techniques include identification of the target behavior, self-observation, and self-recording.
Both general education students and students with disabilities can be taught to manage their
own behavior.
Students can be taught to use any of several different techniques to change their behavior.
Whatever techniques teachers choose, they need to take the following steps in implementing
a self-management plan:
1. Identify the target behavior.
2. Determine the criteria for mastery of the appropriate behavior.
3. Discuss with the student the relevance of the appropriate behavior.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduce the self-management technique.
Model the technique.
Provide guided practice in the technique.
Practice the technique in authentic settings. (King-Sears, 2008; Patton, Jolivette, &
Ramsey, 2006)
The first step in implementing a self-management plan is to identify the target behavior.
Target behaviors are observable, measurable, and repeatable, and they are usually expressed
in terms of action in a positive tone (see Chapter 8). For example, Charlie, a third grader,
often pushes peers during transition times, when in line going to lunch or recess, and when
the teacher is not looking. Since the inappropriate behavior is pushing peers, Charlie’s target
behavior would be to keep his hands to himself. Once the inappropriate behavior has been
identified, the teacher needs to determine the criteria for mastery of the target behavior.
Charlie’s teacher monitored Charlie’s behavior during transition times, while in line, during
lunch, and during recess. The teacher noted that over a 2-day period, Charlie displayed his
inappropriate behavior eight times.
The third step is to discuss the relevance of the appropriate behavior. Charlie needs to
understand the benefits to himself for displaying the target behavior, such as developing
positive relationships with his peers, being able to eat lunch in the cafeteria, being able to go
to recess, and having positive notes sent home. Once Charlie understands the difference
between the inappropriate behavior and the target behavior, the teacher selects a selfmanagement technique and explains the technique to Charlie. The teacher provides a
worksheet for Charlie to use in monitoring his behavior across settings and shows him how to
mark the worksheet. For example, Charlie is to circle “yes” or “no” depending on whether he
displayed the appropriate behavior in specific settings (see Figure 7.1). At the end of each
day, if Charlie has answered yes four times on the worksheet, he rewards himself in a way
that he and his teacher previously determined.
After a self-management technique has been chosen, the teacher needs to model how to use
it. Charlie’s teacher verbalizes her thought process while she models appropriate and
inappropriate behaviors, and while she marks the self-management worksheet as yes, she did
keep her hands to herself, or no, she did not keep her hands to herself. Then the teacher
provides Charlie an opportunity to practice using the self-management worksheet. During
guided practice, the teacher offers feedback and helps Charlie learn the self-management
procedures. Finally, the self-management plan is implemented in “authentic” settings. In
Charlie’s case, this means he demonstrates appropriate behavior during transitions within the
classroom, while in line, and during lunch and recess.
Figure 7.1 Self-Monitoring Worksheet for Charlie
Self-Management Techniques
Teachers often use five common techniques of self-management to help students regulate
their own behavior: goal setting, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and selfreinforcement (Mooney, Ryan, Uhing, Reid, & Epstein, 2005).
Goal Setting
As part of ringing in the New Year, many adults begin self-improvement plans by engaging
in goal setting. They may set goals for getting in shape, eating healthy, or learning a new
hobby. Students can also set goals, and they can be taught how to do so. In the classroom,
students set goals for performance in both academic and behavioral areas. Here we focus on
student goal setting for behavior improvement.
In setting a behavior improvement goal, it is best to address a behavior that the student can
already perform in some situations and that will result in positive outcomes when it is used in
naturally occurring environments. It is also recommended that the student and teacher choose
an emerging skill for the student and set a goal to increase the student’s independent use of
that skill, rather than set a goal that the student will acquire a new skill. It is useful for the
teacher to have a discussion with the student about what the student would like to have
happen with regard to his or her behavior. Finally, a student might select an individual
behavioral goal that is aligned with a classroom or school-wide behavior expectation (Oakes
et al., 2012).
Self-Instruction
Prior to teaching the student self-instruction strategies, the teacher should make sure that the
behavioral goal chosen during goal setting is observable and measurable. In other words, the
student needs to know what the target behavior looks like in order to be able to record when
it happens. For example, if the target behavior chosen during goal setting is on-task behavior,
then the student should understand that on-task behavior means that the student is either
looking at the teacher or looking at and engaging with materials during a lesson.
Self-instruction involves self-talk that assists in regulating behaviors. It includes selfstatements that students are taught to use to direct their own behavior. That is, students
literally talk to themselves to help them finish tasks, solve problems, or mediate social
situations (Menzies, Lane, & Lee, 2009). Most individuals have engaged in self-instruction at
one time or another, talking themselves through difficult tasks or situations. When they do so
silently, the self-instruction is covert. Sometimes, however, people engage in overt selfinstruction, speaking to themselves aloud, especially for the most difficult of tasks.
Most guidelines for teaching self-instruction to students have been adapted from seminal
work by Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971). In teaching self-instruction to a student, the
following steps can be used:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The teacher models the task for the student while talking aloud.
The student performs the task while the teacher talks aloud.
The teacher uses a quiet voice and the student talks aloud while performing the task.
The student whispers while performing the task. The teacher may mouth the words to
the task or use body language or facial expressions to guide or prompt the student to
complete the task.
5. The student performs the task while using silent self-instruction.
Self-Monitoring
During self-monitoring, students observe their own behaviors and self-record whether they
are exhibiting particular behaviors (Rafferty, 2010). A student can record the occurrences of
behavior to be decreased (e.g., talking without permission) or behavior to be increased (e.g.,
time on task). Examples of self-monitoring include crossing things off a to-do list and
tracking how much water one drinks in a day. In the classroom, students can be taught to selfmonitor just about any behavior, from completing homework tasks to speaking out
inappropriately. Successful self-monitoring can enhance and improve academic and social
performance. Although self-monitoring can be used in isolation, it is most often used in
tandem with self-evaluation, in which the student compares the data collected from selfrecording with an established performance standard (Briesch & Chafouleas, 2009).
Self-recording can be cued or noncued. In cued self-recording, students record their behavior
when a signal is given. The signal is usually a recorded tone, such as a chime or bell. When
students hear the tone, they indicate on a data collection sheet if they are engaged in a given
behavior at that time. In noncued self-recording, students are asked to make a notation on a
data collection sheet each time they perform the target behavior.
It is recommended that teachers take the following steps in implementing self-monitoring
strategies with students:
1. Select a target behavior, if this was not done during the goal-setting phase of the
behavior management plan.
2. Define the behavior in observable, measurable terms. Help the student recognize
examples as well as nonexamples of the behavior. For example, the teacher may ask
the student, “Belinda, are you on task or off task?”
3. Instruct the student in the use of an appropriate data collection system and its
corresponding form. For example, for discrete behaviors (those with a clear beginning
and end), event recording (recording each time the target behavior occurs) is most
appropriate (see Figure 7.2). To self-record continuous behaviors, such as being on
task, students might use time sampling or interval recording (see Figure 7.3).
4. Instruct the student how to self-monitor. The student should be able to determine the
difference between engaging and not engaging in the target behavior.
5. Monitor the student during a practice data-recording time period. The teacher may
want to keep her own record in order to compare accuracy.
6. Fade the use of the intervention, so that the student self-monitors without the
intervention. (Rafferty, 2010)
Self-Evaluation
During self-evaluation, students compare their performance to a set criterion (Menzies et al.,
2009). Examples of self-evaluation include a person’s assessment of his own job performance
and an athlete’s determination of how well she ran a race or played a game. In the classroom,
students may evaluate how well they did in a musical performance, or they may assess their
participation in a group project. When a student uses self-evaluation, he compares his own
behavior to a predetermined standard set either by the student himself or by the teacher. Selfevaluation occurs after the student has collected data during the self-monitoring phase of selfmanagement of behavior. Additionally, self-evaluation determines self-reinforcement and
therefore takes place before such reinforcement.
The self-monitoring charts presented in Figures 7.2 and 7.3 have been modified in Figures
7.4 and 7.5 to include self-evaluation components. The addition of the “my achievements”
line allows the student to evaluate himself against the goal that was set at the beginning of the
self-monitoring period.
Figure 7.2 Self-Monitoring Chart for Class Preparedness
Figure 7.3 Self-Monitoring Chart for On Task Behavior
What Would You Do? Belinda
Belinda is a sixth grader in her first month at Sheffield Middle School. She is a good student and is thrilled to be
in middle school. She has made a lot of friends and likes all her new classes and teachers. She particularly likes
that she moves from class to class and has a different teacher for each class.
Belinda’s teachers state that she does well in class. She is very attentive, her time on task is excellent, and she
seems to learn new concepts quickly. The only thing that Belinda seems to be struggling with is remembering to
bring her homework and the correct notebook and materials to each class. For example, when she arrives at
math class, she has her English homework and her biology notebook, but not her materials for math. She also
usually forgets her pencil, and the teacher does not accept work done in pen in math class.
As one of her teachers, what would you do to help Belinda remember to bring the correct homework and
materials to each of her classes?
Self-Reinforcement
With self-reinforcement, students manage their behaviors by rewarding themselves when
they successfully complete self-prescribed activities (Bandura, 1976). Many of us have
engaged in self-reinforcement in our daily lives. For example, you may buy yourself new
clothes when you have lost 10 pounds or go out on a Friday night with friends after you have
completed your workweek productively. The behavior management interventions described
above are more effective when combined with self-reinforcement—that is, when students
give themselves reinforcers if they conclude they have met the standard for the target
behavior. Reinforcers may be points, tokens, or activities—whatever the student decides.
Figure 7.4 Self-Evaluation for Class Preparedness
Figure 7.5 Time Sampling or Interval Recording with Self-Evaluation
When using self-reinforcement strategies with students as part of a behavior management
plan, it is best to start with teacher-initiated contingencies with which students are already
involved. Students may already be allowed to choose their own reinforcers, such as extra
computer time after finishing a worksheet. The transition from teacher-mediated
reinforcement of behavior to student-managed reinforcement is made easier when students
are explicitly taught to use self-reinforcement. Self-reinforcement may involve the students
choosing their own reinforcers, setting criteria for earning reinforcers, or both.
Goal setting, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement form
the basis for effective cognitive behavior management interventions. The learning and
behavior of students with and without disabilities in the general education classroom setting
can be enhanced through the use of self-management techniques (Moore et al., 2013).
Furthermore, self-management meets the criteria for being an evidence-based practice that
can be used across age groups and settings (Rafferty, 2010).
Case Study
Jane and Ms. Daniels
Jane is a third grader at Abydos Elementary School. Her physical education teacher, Ms. Daniels, has recently
noticed that Jane has been consistently arriving late at the gymnasium for class after changing into her gym
clothes in the locker room. Ms. Daniels talks to Jane, and she finds out that Jane likes and can do the activities
in the class. It seems to Ms. Daniels that what is making Jane late is that she is socializing in the locker room
rather than concentrating on changing clothes and getting to class in a timely fashion. Ms. Daniels decides to use
a self-management strategy with Jane.
Together, Jane and Ms. Daniels define the target behavior as follows: Jane will leave the locker room at 9:10
a.m. (in order to be on the gymnasium floor at 9:15) on 4 of 5 class days each week for 1 month. They design a
self-recording worksheet that consists of a chart with boxes for 20 days (5 days for 4 weeks) and tape it to the
inside of Jane’s locker. Jane puts a checkmark in a box each day she is ready to leave the locker room and the
clock says 9:10 a.m. If Jane is at her station in the gym by 9:15 a.m., Ms. Daniels also records a checkmark on a
chart.
So that Jane does not have to wait until the end of the month for reinforcement, Jane and Ms. Daniels decide
that if Jane meets her goal for a week, she will be allowed to pass out the equipment the following Monday. If
Jane meets her goal for the month, she will be allowed to be the team leader for the activity of her choice during
the next “free choice” Friday. Additionally, every time Jane is on time and ready for class by 9:15, Ms. Daniels
gives her a thumbs-up.
Jane’s on-time arrival to PE class increases significantly over the next few weeks. Eventually, Ms. Daniels is
able to fade the self-monitoring sheet and Jane continues to arrive to class on time when she is reinforced, on a
variable-interval schedule, with being allowed to pass out team equipment.
Problem-Solving Strategies
In addition to the components discussed previously, cognitive behavior management
programs rely on students’ use of problem-solving strategies. Problem solving is a
“systematic process in which concerns are identified, defined, actions taken, and solutions
evaluated” (Miller & Nunn, 2001, p. 472). Teachers need to provide problem-solving strategy
instruction for those students who fail to use effective problem-solving strategies on their
own (e.g., students with emotional/behavioral disabilities). Teachers should provide
instruction in the area of problem solving just as they would provide instruction in an
academic subject. Modeling appropriate problem-solving skills as part of daily classroom
routines is also important (Robinson, 2007).
Teachers can use self-instruction as an approach to teaching problem-solving skills. Using a
five-step process, students are first taught to define the problem. Next, students identify as
many solutions as possible. Then, students evaluate the potential outcomes of the possible
solutions identified in the previous step. Next, students choose and implement a solution.
Finally, students evaluate the outcome and begin the process over if the solution was not
successful (Robinson, 2007; Robinson, Smith, & Miller, 2002).
Social problem solving is the “process of solving all types of problems that may affect a
person’s ability to function in the natural environment, or ‘real world’” (Isbell & Jolivette,
2011, p. 32). Using a strategy called “stop, think, proceed,” students use steps with visual
cues and questions to prompt them through the social problem-solving process. In the first
phase, stop, students recognize the emotional clues, take a few breaths to calm down, and
identify the problem. In the second phase, think, students come up with possible solutions,
evaluate each solution, and decide which solution to try. In the final phase, proceed, students
carry out the solution, verify the outcomes, and try another solution if the problem is
unresolved (Isbell & Jolivette, 2011).
Social problem-solving strategies can be integrated into class mee …
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