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Rhetorical Analysis of a Text
1,000-word minimum, APA Format
What is a Rhetorical Analysis? To write a rhetorical analysis, you look at a text paying
attention not necessarily to the content, but to how it was written—this requires “reading
like a writer.” For this paper, rhetorical analysis includes analyzing how a text delivers a
message; identifying the rhetorical situation that the author is responding to, including
the audience, purpose, and context; recognizing the writing choices the author makes;
and supporting all your observations with textual evidence.
write a rhetorical analysis paper which will discuss some of the context of the article.
Your paper will address the below details, and discuss how they impact the article, the
writing choices made in the article, or how the audience may respond to it.
• Identify the author’s purpose in writing the article
• Describe any identifiable political/social/academic context to which the article is
responding (e.g.: was this article written in response to another article? Was it
written in response to a certain event, trend, issue, or controversy?)
• Explain who is the author’s intended audience (tip: research the periodical) and
consider how this audience will respond to it. (e.g.: surprise, confusion,
controversy, disagreement, agreement)
In addition, your paper will answer the following questions about the author’s writing
choices:
• What is the main argument of the article?
• Is the author affiliated with any institutions, agencies, or corporations? How might
this impact their work or writing?
• How does the author use language to present their argument? Give an example
from the text. (e.g.: persuasive, technical, academic, conversational, casual)
• Why did the author structure the article the way they did? How did they organize
their data and argument?
• How does the author use evidence/data/outside sources to support their
argument? What type of evidence do they use?
Your paper will discuss why the author made these writing choices, and support claims
with examples and/or quotations from the text. For example:
Rodriguez (2017) uses persuasive language in this article. For example, in the
conclusion, she uses the words “strongly” and “powerfully” (p. 26), which emphasize the
importance of her research. This use of language is intended to persuade the reader
that her work is conclusive.
I recommend using straightforward language, instead of academic language, and building simple
sentences that use specific details and examples to get your meaning across.
Structure: This is a formal, academic essay. This is not an argument paper, so no
thesis statement is necessary, but an introduction and conclusion will likely be
helpful for your reader. Please assume your reader has not read the article.
Please include topic sentences. Beyond that, the structure of your paper is
flexible, but it should be logical and clear to your reader. Outside sources are not
necessary, but may be used if you’d like to do background research on your
author or the publication, for example. Please refer to and quote from the original
article multiple times, using appropriate APA/MLA citations and a
References/Works Cited page.
Grading Rubric
Assignment Prompt 10% Did you choose an appropriate, credible article? Did you put
time into understanding the article’s argument and purpose?
Bullet Points Did you follow the assignment? Did you address all eight required bullet
points?
15% Audience, Purpose, Context
15% Argument, Affiliation, Language, Structure, Evidence
Rhetorical Analysis Did you consider the author’s writing choices? Did you consider
how and why the article is structured as it is? Did you go beyond summary to analysis?
10% Do you go beyond summary to analysis?
10% Do you consider the author’s writing choices?
10% Quotations Did you quote or paraphrase from your article multiple times? Did you
effectively integrate the quotations into the body of your paper?
20% Citations Did you carefully follow the rules of your academic conventions for
citation (e.g. APA, MLA), including both in-text and bibliographic citations?
10% Sentences, Grammar, Spelling Did you put time into revising, editing, and
correcting errors? Are your sentences strong and clear? Are your paragraphs wellstructured, including topic sentences and transitions?
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering
Vol. 12, No. 1 / January 2008
pp. 25~29
DOI 10.1007/s12205-008-8025-7
Structural Engineering: Seeing the Big Picture
By W. F. Chen*
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Abstract
The state-of-the-art of progress of structural engineering over the last 50 years is examined in three areas: (1) The spatial
idealization of structural elements in the form of kinematical assumptions; (2) The constitutive idealization of materials in the form of
generalized stresses and generalized strains relations; and (3) The computational implications of solution strategy in the form of
closed form, approximate, and numerical procedures on the structural level.
Keywords: structural engineering, stress-strain, kinematics, finite element, strength of materials, modeling and simulation, state-ofthe-art
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1. Introduction
Structural engineering is a part of the broad and fascinating
subject of mechanics of materials or continuum mechanics,
which spans the spectrum from the fundamental aspects of
elastic and inelastic behavior of materials to the practical solution
of engineering problems in engineering practice.
Mechanics is a branch of applied physics involving
mathematical formulation of a physical problem and its solution
strategy for engineering applications. The process must involve
three basic conditions or equations for solutions:
1. Equilibrium equations or motion reflecting law of physics
(Newton’s law or Physics).
2. Constitutive equations or stress-strain relations reflecting
material behavior (Materials or Experiments).
3. Compatibility equations or kinematical assumptions reflecting the geometry (Continuity or Logic).
The required simplicity of equilibrium, material behavior, and
kinematics to be usable with the most powerful computers, for
the analysis or design of engineering structures over their life
cycle simulation, requires drastic idealizations and simplifications
to achieve realistic and practical solution for engineering design.
This paper shows how structural engineering field has been
evolved and progressed over the last 50 years along with the
rapid growth and development of computing power over the last
several decades.
2. Strength of Materials Approach to Structural
Engineering in the Early Years
The methods of formulation and calculation of a structural
problem must be adapted to a wide class of structural forms so
that the basic equations to be written for a structural element are
manageable and not too excessively complex. To this end, the
concept of generalized stresses and generalized strains were
introduced in the 1950’s for solutions of strength of materials
types of problems including beams, columns, beam-columns that
form the basis of analysis for frame design. This was later
extended to include plate and shell types of structural analysis
and design.
In the case of simple beam theory, for example, the stressed
state in a beam element is determined by only one generalized
stress, the bending moment, instead of six stresses; while the
corresponding deformation is defined by one generalized strain,
the curvature, instead of six strains. This drastic simplification is
achieved through the powerful kinematical assumption of plane
section remains plane after bending. This generalized stress and
generalized strain concept for a simple beam element can be
easily extended to the case of column element, for example, with
combined generalized stresses of bending moment and axial
force with the corresponding generalized strains of bending
curvature and axial shortening.
As a result of this simplification, the equilibrium equations are
used to relate the stresses in an element to its generalized
stresses, while the kinematical assumption is used to relate the
strains in an element to its generalized strains, and the stress-strain
relations of materials are then used to derive the generalized
stresses and generalized strains relations for a structural element.
The basic formulation for a structural member is now reduced to
a one-dimensional problem instead of six dimensions in the sense
of continuum mechanics approach to a structural engineering
problem.
*Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 (E-mail: chenwf@eng.hawaii.edu)
Vol. 12, No. 1 / January 2008
− 25 −
W. F. Chen
For an elastic problem, most of strength of materials problems
can be solved in closed form by power series expansion as well
documented in the famous work of Timoshenko. Many of these
well known classical solutions for beams, columns, beam-columns,
plates and shells were reported in a series of widely popular
books by Timoshenko (1951, 1953, 1961, 1962), among others.
For high rise building frames, the entire length of a structural
member is selected as the basic element for engineering analysis.
To this end, the corresponding relationships between the
generalized stresses (member end moments and end forces) and
the corresponding generalized strains (member end rotations and
relative end lateral displacements) for a structural member were
represented in the form of the well-known “slope-deflection
equations” for elastic structural system analysis (Chen and Lui,
1987, 1991). The slope deflection equations were simple and
powerful and thus widely used in engineering practice for building
frame design based on the Allowable Stress Design codes in
early years.
In engineering practice, a more powerful companion approximate method known as the “moment distribution method” was
also developed by Hardy Cross at the University of Illinois
(Gere, 1962). It was based on the St. Venant principle in that the
moment distribution in a particular structural member in a high
rise building frame is affected mostly by the surrounding
members adjacent to it. The influence of other members in some
distance from the member under consideration is relative small
and may be ignored after a few cycles of iteration.
For inelastic problems, a further simplification of material
behavior is made by ignoring strain hardening and also to
eliminating entirely the factor of time from the formulation. This
leads to the time independent idealization for plastic behavior
and enables us to use the simple plastic theory to determine the
plastic collapse load with the equilibrium methods for lower
bound solutions and the mechanism methods for upper bound
solutions.
For low rise building, simple plastic theory was developed in
which the material model used was elastic perfectly plastic
(ASCE Manual 41, 1971). The kinematical assumption used was
the powerful concept of “plastic hinge.” Upper and lower bound
solutions were obtained by the simple mechanism methods
bounded above; and the simple equilibrium methods with
moment check bounded below (see for example, Chen and
Sohal, 1995). The Plastic Design method was officially adopted
by the American Institute of Steel Construction in the early
1960’s (see, for example, ASCE Manual 41, 1971).
As a result of this advancement, plastic design methods for
steel structures were spread widely and introduced quickly in
various new codes around the world for steel design; while the
companion ultimate strength design for reinforced concrete was
advanced quickly and adopted widely in the reinforced concrete
codes for building design. Similar advancements were also made
for the plate theory for plate type of steel structural design; while
the yield line theory was introduced at the same time for slab
design in reinforced concrete code.
Based on these simple and practical solution techniques using
drastic simplifications and idealizations for materials, geometry
and equations of equilibrium, the traditional “Allowable Stress
Design Method” and the newly developed “Plastic Design
Method” were widely used in engineering practice in those years.
These simple and powerful design methods are ideal and suitable
with the basic computing facility available at the time such as
slide rule and calculators. Drastic idealizations and simplifications
were the key elements for a rapid and successful implementation
of these methods for design of real world engineering problems.
In summary, the idealizations and simplifications used in the
strength of materials approach to structural engineering problems
can be highlighted by the following seven steps of progress:
1. Structural elements – beam, column, beam-column, plate
and shell.
2. Generalized stresses – stress resultants such as moment and
axial force.
3. Generalized strains – strain resultants such as curvature and
axial displacement.
4. Stresses to generalized stresses – through equilibrium equations.
5. Strains to generalized strains – through kinematical assumptions.
6. Generalized stress and generalized strain relations –
through stress-strain relations of materials.
7. Solution strategy – series expansion, approximate and
numerical.
3. Finite Element Approach to Structural Engineering in Recent Years
In the 1970’s, our computing power changed drastically with
mainframe computing. The “Finite Element methods” were well
developed and widely used in structural engineering. The basic
material model used was the extension from linear elasticity to
inelasticity, or plasticity in particular. The basic kinematical or
compatibility condition used for a finite-element formulation
was known as the “shape function.” The equilibrium condition
was achieved through a weak format of “equation of virtual
work” instead of the usual free body equilibrium formulation.
As a result of these simplifications, the force displacement
relation for a finite element was expressed in the form of the
generalized stress and generalized strain relationship. This basic
relationship for an element in a discrete continuum of a structural
system is known as the “nodal force and nodal displacement
equation.” The stresses in elements were related to the
generalized stresses or nodal forces through the virtual work
equation. Elemental strains were related to the generalized strains
or nodal displacements through the kinematical assumption, or
shape function. The incremental generalized stress and generalized
strain relation for a finite element was then obtained through the
constitutive equation of a particular material.
In summary, the three basic conditions for a valid solution of a
typical finite element formulation are achieved with the following
− 26 −
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering: Seeing the Big Picture
idealizations and simplifications:
(1) Equilibrium Condition (Newton’s Law or Physics)
The virtual work equation is used exclusively to establish the
relationship between the stress in an element to the generalized
stresses or nodal forces at nodal points.
(2) Kinematics Condition (Continuity or Logic)
The shape function is introduced to establish the relationship
between the strains in an element to the generalized strains of
nodal displacements at the nodal points.
(3) Constitutive Relations (Material or Experiment)
The theory of plasticity or viscosity is used to relate the
generalized stresses to generalized strains or the nodal forces and
nodal displacements relationships through the use of constitutive
equations of engineering materials.
The two-volume treatise on constitutive equations for engineering materials by Chen and Saleeb (1982), and Chen (1994) covers
most of these developments, among others (Chen and Baladi,
1985). During this period, we were able to solve almost any kind
of structural engineering problems with computer simulation.
For the first time in the history of computing, the physical theory
is lagging behind the computing power. By now, engineers need
to develop a more refined theory of constitutive equations for
engineering materials for their special finite element types of
applications.
As a result of these simplifications, the structural engineering
problem is now reduced to the solution of a set of simultaneous
incremental equations for a structural system. Since the solution
includes the inelastic behavior of materials which is load path
dependent, the numerical scheme used was an incremental and
iterative process (Chen and Han, 1988). Many numerical procedures were developed during the period, most notably the
“tangent stiffness method”, among others.
With a large amount of numerical data so generated, it became
necessary for engineers to use probability theory and reliability
analysis to analyze the data and develop design procedures for
practical implementation. As a result of this development, a new
generation of codes based on an extensive computer simulation
and reliability analysis was developed and adopted around the
world. For the first time in engineering practice ever, the load
effect and structural resistance effect were treated separately in
design, each with its own safety or load factor. The new code in
US, for example, was adopted by the American Institute of Steel
Construction entitled “the load and resistance factor design
specifications for steel buildings” in 1986.
The following is a brief summary in a tabular form of the
impact of the applications of finite element methods with
plasticity theory on structural engineering practice.
3.1 In the 1970s: Development of Structural Member
Strength Equations
• Beam strength equation – beam design curve.
• Column strength equation –column design curve.
• Beam-Column strength equation – beam-column interaction
design curve.
Vol. 12, No. 1 / January 2008
• Bi-axially loaded column strength equation for plastic design
in steel building frames.
These developments were summarized in the two-volume
beam-columns treatise by Chen and Atsuta (1976, 1977) and the
SSRC Guide edited by Galambos (1988), among others.
3.2 In the 1980s: Limit States to Design
• Development of reliability-based codes.
• The publication of the 1986 AISC/LRFD Specification.
• The introduction of the second-order elastic analysis to the
design codes.
• The explicit consideration of semi-rigid connections in frame
design (now known as the PR Construction) (Chen and Kim,
1998).
These developments were summarized in the structural
stability books by Chen and Lui (1991) and Chen (1993), among
others.
3.3 In the 1990s: Structural System Approach to Design
• Second-Order inelastic analysis for steel frame design was
under intense development (White and Chen, 1993).
• The theory of plasticity is combined with the theory of
stability for a direct steel frame design (Chen and Kim,
1997).
• The advanced analysis considers explicitly the influence of
structural joints in analysis/design proc …
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