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The positive psychology of sustainability V ́ıctor Corral Verdugo
Received: 2 December 2011 / Accepted: 6 March 2012 / Published online: 17 March 2012 Ó Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract As in most areas of psychology, a negative bias permeates the study of the subject of Conservation
Psychology: sustainable behavior (SB). SB constitutes the set of actions aimed at protecting the sociophysical environment. This behavior is sometimes addressed as having negative antecedent-instigators
(fear, guilt, shame), activated to avoid undesirable outcomes from environmental degradation. Also,
psycho-environmental researchers often visualize negative psychological consequences (discomfort,
inconve- nience, sacrifice) of SB. Yet, a number of studies reveal that positive psychological antecedents
(capacities, emotions, virtues and strengths) as well as positive psychological consequences (satisfaction,
psychological well-being, and happiness) of SB are also sig- nificant determinants of pro-environmental
actions. In this paper, I argue that SB is positive behavior originated by positive dispositional factors, and
maintained by psychological benefits. By combining the emergent fields of positive psychology and the
psychology of sustainability, an alternative approach for the study of the positive psychology of sustainable behavior is outlined.
Keywords Sustainability Positive psychology Environmental psychology Sustainable behavior
1 Introduction
When facing the opportunity to behave pro-environmentally, many people sometimes anticipate negative
emotions such as feelings of sacrifice, discomfort, or experiment shame or guilt due to an insufficient
conservationist effort. This situation is acknowledged by preeminent environmental psychologists whose
research empirically confirm that some
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V. Corral Verdugo (&) Department of Psychology, University of Sonora, Luis Encinas y Rosales S/N,
83000 Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico e-mail: victorcorralv@gmail.com
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individuals associate negative psychological consequences to their potential conserva- tionist actions, but
also that a number of negative emotions are instigators of pro-envi- ronmental or sustainable actions
(Kaplan 2000; Lindenberg and Steg 2007; Malott 2010). Thus, psychological negativity appears in research
schemas as an important determinant of sustainable actions.
For instance, some authors indicate that guilt and shame, associated with an insufficient environmentally
protective effort, may encourage people to get involved in the conser- vation of natural resources (Kaiser et
al. 2008; Kals 1996). Watching the depressive images of waste landfills might be a motivation to engage in
recycling behaviors (Heward and Chance 2010). Malott (2010) establishes that fear to the dangerous
consequences of environmental degradation acts as a negative emotion promoting sustainable behaviors. In
addition, Dickerson et al. (1992) have shown that the induction of emotional discomfort and consciousness
of hypocrisy, both as consequences of anti-environmentally acting, result in increased pro-ecological
behaviors.
Moreover, Lindenberg and Steg (2007), and Kaplan (2000) suggest that discomfort and sacrifice are more
likely to occur than the experience of rewards as consequences of engaging in sustainable behaviors. Malott
(2010) also considers that the feelings of guilt and fear often motivate more than the incentives of wellbeing that result from pro- environmentally acting. Since the beginnings of Conservation Psychology
(Saunders 2003)—also called the psychology of sustainability (Schmuck and Schultz 2002)—this negative
approach was salient. Behaviorists such as Cone and Hayes (1980), in stating that behavior is maintained
by reinforcing events, concluded that it is easier to find significant and short-term benefits from antienvironmental behaviors than from pro-environmental actions. Such a pessimistic vision prevails nowadays
(see Pritchard 2010). In other theo- ries, the psycho-environmental negative bias is also present. For
instance, in the pre- dominant psycho-evolutionary vision, human selfishness dominates over altruism and
concern for the environment; therefore, environmentally depredatory behaviors are more practiced than the
conservationist ones (Jackson 2002). Dawkins (2001), a famous evo- lutionist, assures that sustainability
does not come naturally. Also, Freud’s (1964) psy- choanalytic theory posited that human aggression
springs from our redirecting toward others the energy of a primitive death urge. This urge manifests as
interpersonal violence and environmental degradation (Ehigie et al. 2005).
Thus, the negative approach that permeates other areas of psychology (Seligman 2002) is also preeminent
in the psychology of sustainability. The emphasis on the negative correlates of sustainable behavior does
not only prevent researchers from getting involved in the study of more positive psychological antecedents
of such behavior, but it also affects the understanding of the positive psychological consequences of
sustainable actions. Moreover, if people (researchers included) are unaware of the personal benefits—in
addition to the environmental benefits—that they are able to obtain from behaving sus- tainably, the effort
for developing a pro-environmentally oriented citizenship will be harder than otherwise. People behave the
way they do, largely, because they associate positive consequences with their acting (Lehman and Geller
2004), and—as it will be shown in this paper—sustainable behaviors produce significant psychological
benefits to individuals that practice it.
Why sustainable behaviors are conceived of as being negative? A number of theorists have lucubrated that
negativity is more salient than positivity because such salience has an adaptive value. Baumeister et al.
(2001), in fact, conclude that ‘‘Bad is stronger than good’’ assuring that the superior power of bad feelings
over the good ones is found in everyday events, social network patterns, interpersonal relations, and
learning processes. Those
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authors consider that this negative predominance is an indication of the bias that we, humans (and many
other animals as well), manifest by paying more attention to bad experiences than to positive ones. This
makes sense because, as Froh (2009) explains, somebody that loses a positive result can feel sorrow in the
future from failing to achieve it; yet s(he) will survive such a loss. However, somebody unable to realize
and feel the presence of danger or other negative unpleasant experience might suffer serious consequences, including death. Thus, this implies that it is more ‘‘valuable’’ to pay attention to the bad events we
face than to the good ones, since there will always be time to experience well-being but we cannot risk our
integrity at the present. Perhaps this also explains, at least partially, why people, the media, social scientists
and psychologists are more focused on negative actions and also on the negative consequences of
everything, including the repercussions associated with practicing sustainable behaviors.
In spite of the predominant pessimistic view of sustainable behaviors and its correlates, Lindenberg and
Steg (2007) also assert that the search for comfort and well-being can guide people toward the conservation
of their socio-physical environment. In other words, many individuals seek out environmental protection—
and, subsequently get involved in conservationist practices—in order to feel pleasure and well-being. This
idea is supported by empirical studies indicating that environmentally protective behaviors largely obey to
antecedent positive factors, but also to positive psychological repercussions (De Young 1996; Kals and
Maes 2002; Schultz 2001; Brown and Kasser 2005). This should be added to the fact that sustainable
practices are regarded as positive behaviors, because they are universally recognized and valued, as ideals
to meet and reproduce.
Although the positive psychological component of sustainable behaviors is evident, no notorious effort for
systematizing its study is noticed. On the contrary, most explanatory frameworks of pro-environmental
behavior stress the negative aspects hindering this behavior. The predominance of a vision of sustainable
behavior having a more negative than positive connotation could affect the efforts for promoting it.
Therefore, the sys- tematic study of its positive components should be useful and necessary for psychology
and other social and environmental sciences.
In this paper, a brief review of the positive psychological elements of sustainable behaviors is conducted.
This review is developed by combining two major areas of study and theoretical reflection: on the one
hand, environmental psychology—in its psychology of sustainability (or conservation psychology) facet—
and, on the other hand, positive psychology (PP). The result of such combination produces an area of
confluence that could be labeled as the positive psychology of sustainability. This writing also develops a
pro- posal of explanatory model of sustainable behavior instigated by situational and disposi- tional
positive antecedents, and maintained by positive psychological consequences. Finally, the paper briefly
discusses how a positive psychology of sustainability could impact on other social sciences dealing with
sustainability issues.
2 Sustainable behaviors
Conservation psychology studies a series of psychological factors inciting the display of behaviors aimed at
the conservation of the socio-physical environment (Saunders 2003). Through these behaviors, the
protection of the physical milieu is achieved by conserving natural resources and decreasing those
resources’ consumption, while the social environ- ment is protected through actions of solidarity and
fairness (Bonnes and Bonaiuto 2002). Thus, the core of the psychology of sustainability is the study of
sustainable behavior (SB)
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and its determinants. SB is defined as a set of ‘‘action aimed at conserving the integrity of the sociophysical resources of this planet’’ (Corral-Verdugo et al. 2010, p. 8). When sustainably oriented people get
involved in these actions, they generate conditions allowing a more equitable use of natural, economic, and
social resources (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 2004); their consumption of those resources is moderate, so that
everybody might afford their use (De Young 1996; Iwata 2001); sustainably oriented individuals are also
caring, and help others in need (Pol 2002), which implies that sustainable people are altruistically motivated (Schultz 2001); in addition, they constantly engage in actions of natural resources’ protection (Kaiser
1998). This means that a sustainably oriented person is at least pro- ecological, frugal, altruistic, and
equitable, and there is empirical evidence showing sig- nificant interrelationships among those four types of
sustainable actions (De Young 1993; Iwata 2001; Schultz 2001; Corral-Verdugo et al. 2010).
The current environmental crisis, clearly represented in the global climate change, urges behavioral
practices that manifest in these instances of sustainable behavior. Through pro- ecological actions (i.e.,
behaviors aimed at protecting natural resources), individuals engage in practices of global warming
mitigation such as recycling, water and energy conservation, eco- system protection, pro-ecological
persuasion and lobbying, as well as sustainably design and building, among others (Kaiser 1998; Sua ́rez
2010). Their frugal behavior leads them to a decreased consumption of products and a lightly way of living
(Iwata 2001) that includes the reuse of objects, the consumption of environmentally friendly products, a
reduced purchase of accessories, walking or bicycling instead of driving, and living without luxuries etc.
(Corral- Verdugo et al. 2010). By practicing Altruistic behavior, which encompasses actions aimed at
ensuring the well-being of others, without the expectation of retribution (Van Lange 2000), individuals pay
attention to collective acts intended at preventing or mitigating the effects of climatic change (drought,
famine, diseases) and to the needs of people already affected by it, donating money and collaborating with
charities, volunteering in campaigns of global warming mitigation, among many others (Corral-Verdugo et
al. 2010). Finally, through their Equitable behavior, which is conceived as fairly treating others, based on
justice principles and avoiding bias related to physical or demographic traits of persons when interacting
with them, individuals help in empowering people in need to face the consequences of global warming.
This is achieved by guaranteeing a fair distribution of natural resources and social benefits for everybody,
allowing equal opportunities for boys and girls in studying, and an equitable treatment to minorities and
people of all socio-economic conditions, among others (Corral-Verdugo et al. 2010).
Sustainable behavior fits within the scheme of positive psychology in a number of ways. For instance, proecological, frugal, altruistic, and equitable actions constitute practices that might be categorized as
‘‘virtuous.’’ Virtues are a subject of enormous interest for positive psychologists; therein lies much of
personal growth, positive coexistence with others, psychological well-being and the adaptation to the
environment (Peterson and Seligman 2004). Most sustainable behaviors are explicitly considered as
character strengths in the PP scheme, as we will see in this paper. In addition, there are many positive
psychological repercussions deriving from sustainable actions, as this study will also further discuss; also, a
number of positive mental states and psychological processes function as antecedents of sustainable
behaviors.
3 The positive psychology of sustainable behavior
To establish possible compatibilities between PP and the psychology of sustainability, it might be
convenient to analyze the factors studied in both fields, as well as their main
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postulates. Environmental psychology considers that, both the improvement in quality of life and
environmental quality are among its fundamental aims, also emphasizing the well- being of humans
(Stokols and Altman 1987); PP agrees with such ideals. Additional postulates, such as the search of
happiness, achieving everybody’s well-being, the pro- motion of harmonious relationships, and the
development of human capacities, etc., are also consistent in both areas. Moreover, many of the concepts
addressed in environmental psychology and PP are similar, in some cases identical and, in others, keep
closeness. In trying to find a correspondence between (a) psycho-environmental aspects linked to sustainable behaviors and its determinants and (b) positive psychological states, traits and behaviors, Table 1
presents some possible equivalencies. The associations between both types of concepts are described as
follows.
Pro-sustainability orientation, the set of dispositional and behavioral variables that characterize
environmentally responsible individuals (Corral-Verdugo et al. 2009), fits to a large extent in the scheme of
psychological strengths and virtues described by Peterson and Seligman (2004); both clusters include traits
allowing and/or encouraging actions to pro- tect oneself, others and the environment (Schultz 2001).
In addition, frugality is considered within PP as a manifestation of temperance, a virtue that implies
avoiding waste of resources and consumerism (Peterson and Seligman 2004); while frugality is also an
essential component of sustainable behavior (Iwata 2001). Altruism, one more sustainable behavior,
corresponds with the humanity virtue of PP, which covers interpersonal strengths that involve kindness and
caring for others (Peterson and Seligman 2004). Similarly, equity, which is also a sustainable behavior, is
strongly associated with fairness, a virtue having to do with the morally righteous, and that is based on
ethics, rationality, spirituality and equity principles (Konow 2003).
Table 1 Equivalencies between some positive functioning aspects (PFA) and sustainable behavior with its
determinants (SBD)
SBD (psychology of sustainability) Sustainable orientation
Frugality
Altruism Equity
Pro-ecological behavior
Responsibility
Future orientation
Pro-environmental deliberation
Ecological beliefs
Adherence to pro-environmental norms
Positive environmental emotions Pro-environmental competency Intrinsic motivation
Happiness
Satisfaction
Psychological restoration Psychological well-being
PFA (positive psychology)
Psychological strengths and virtues
Temperance, prudence
Humanity, kindness
Fairness
Positive environmental behavior
Responsibility Future propensity, hope Perseverance, purpose in life Positive ecological attitudes Civic
virtues
Positive emotions Skills, talent, originality Intrinsic motivation Satisfaction Happiness
restoration Psychological well-being
Psychological
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As far as I know, a positive psychological term that is equivalent to the psycho- environmental concept of
pro-ecological behavior does not exist. Yet, Ramsey (1993) some time ago used the term positive
environmental behavior to imply actions of natural resources protection. According to Seligman et al.
(2005), positive psychology helps to establishing the civic virtues and institutions that orient individuals
toward a better citi- zenship. One of those virtues is responsibility, which is considered within the
conservation psychology scheme as a determinant of sustainable behavior (Guagnano 1995).
Future orientation is also considered an important component of both psychological schemas. PP studies a
series of cognitive processes involving the future, and these include optimism, hope and faith (Seligman
2002). Seguiner (2009) punctually examines future orientation as a positive psychological aspect, while the
psychology of sustainability focuses its interest on the possible effect of future propensity on
environmentally pro- tective behaviors (Joreiman et al. 2004).
Within the psycho-environmental framework, deliberation is a crucial component of sustainable behavior:
It is defined as behavior intentionally aimed at the conservation of the environment (Corral-Verdugo et al.
2010). Perseverance, defined by positive psychologists as continued intention or re-application of an effort
to achieve a goal, in spite of the temptation to quit (Pury 2009), is nearly equivalent to the proenvironmental deliberation concept. Purpose in life is an additional positive construct that also refers to
personal intentions (Ryff and Singer 2008). Altruistically and environmentally concerned people maintain,
as purpose and intention, the idea of protecting both the natural environment and their fellow humans
(Eisenberg et al. 2003; Corral-Verdugo et al. 2010).
Positive psychology has neither so far postulated nor investigated a construct similar to the pro-ecological
beliefs concept, which considers that humans are part of nature and subject to their interdependence
ecological principles (Dunlap et al. 2000). A PP concept close to this would be the one mentioned by
Biswas-Diener (2010) in his recent book: positive ecological attitudes.
Adherence to environmental norms is a significant factor influencing sustainable behaviors (Nordlund and
Garvill 2003). Within positive psychology, the concept of civic virtues (Seligman et al. 2005) implies the
development of behavioral tendencies assumedly fundamental for the success of a community.
The psychology of sustainability stresses the r …
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