Expert answer:Need help with I/O Psychology Motivational Theorie
Answer & Explanation:AssignmentI only need points 2&3. I will do 1 and 4.Motivational Theories and FactorsTo be effective, a company must learn to motivate its employees to efficiently meet the goals of the organization. Using what you know about motivation and the field of I/O psychology, respond to the following:Propose at least three ways to motivate others in the workplace. Create a strategy for enhancing your own motivation in the workplace. Compare and contrast two motivational theories (found in Chapter 7 of your course text) of your choice.Finally, discuss the pros and cons of using financial incentives in the workplace. Your assignment must be two to three double-spaced pages in length (excluding title and reference pages) and formatted according to APA guidelines. Include a cover page and reference page formatted in APA style. In addition to the textbook, utilize at least one scholarly peer-reviewed source that was published within the past five years. Your sources must be cited according to APA format. Carefully review the Grading Rubric for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.Description: Total Possible Score: 12.00Proposes Three Ways to Motivate Others in the WorkplaceTotal: 2.50Distinguished – Exceptionally clear and well thought out proposals of ways to motivate others in the workplace.Proficient -Clear and focused proposals of ways to motivate others in the workplace.Basic – Somewhat clear and focused proposals of ways to motivate others in the workplace.Below Expectations – Proposals lack clarity *or* fewer than three ways to motivate others in the workplace are provided.Non-Performance – The proposal of three ways to motivate others in the workplace is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.Creates an Effective Strategy for Enhancing Self Motivation in the WorkplaceTotal: 2.50Distinguished – Exceptionally detailed and well-thought out creation of strategy for enhancing self motivation in the workplace. Proficient – Effectively detailed creation of strategy for enhancing self motivation in the workplace. Basic – Sufficiently detailed creation of strategy for enhancing self motivation in the workplace. Below Expectations – Lacks detail in creation of strategy for enhancing self motivation in the workplace. Non-Performance – The creation of an effective strategy for enhancing self motivation in the workplace is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.Compares and Contrasts Two Motivational TheoriesTotal: 3.00Distinguished – Comprehensively compares and contrasts two motivation theories with high level of critical thought.Proficient – Effectively compares and contrasts two motivational theories with reasonable level of critical thought.Basic – Sufficiently compares and contrasts two motivational theories without critical thought.Below Expectations – Lacks details in comparing and contrasting two motivational theories and is difficult to follow.Non-Performance – The comparison of two motivational theories is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.Discusses the Pros and Cons of the Use of Financial Incentives in the WorkplaceTotal: 2.00Distinguished – Exceptionally clear and focused discussion of pros and cons of financial incentives in the workplace.Proficient – Clear and focused discussion of pros and cons of financial incentives in the workplace.Basic – Somewhat clear discussion of pros and cons of financial incentives in the workplace.Below Expectations – Discussion lacks clarity and focus *or* only presents one side of financial incentives in the workplace.Non-Performance – The discussion of the pros and cons of the use of financial incentives in the workplace is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.Integrative Learning: Reflection and Self AssessmentTotal: 0.50Distinguished – Assesses changes in own learning over time, recognizing varied contextual factors (e.g., works with ambiguity and risk, deals with frustration, considers ethical frameworks).Proficient – Effectively communicates strengths and challenges (within specific performances or events) to increase effectiveness in different contexts (through increased self-awareness).Basic – Depicts own performances with general descriptions of success and failure.Below Expectations – Unsuccessfully defines own performances with general descriptors of success and failure.Non-Performance – The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.Critical Thinking: Explanation of IssuesTotal: 0.50Distinguished – Clearly and comprehensively explains in detail the issue to be considered, delivering all relevant information necessary for full understanding.Proficient – Clearly explains in details the issue to be considered, delivering enough relevant information for an adequate understanding.Basic – Briefly recognizes the issue to be considered, delivering minimal information for a basic understanding.Below Expectations – Briefly recognizes the issue to be considered, but may not deliver additional information necessary for a basic understanding.Non-Performance – The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.Written Communication: Control of Syntax and MechanicsTotal: 0.25Distinguished – Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors, and is very easy to understand.Proficient – Displays comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains only a few minor errors, and is mostly easy to understand.Basic – Displays basic comprehension of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains a few errors, which may slightly distract the reader.Below Expectations – Fails to display basic comprehension or syntax or mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains major errors, which distract the reader.Non-Performance – The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.APA FormatTotal: 0.25Distinguished – Accurately uses APA formatting consistently throughout the paper, title and reference page.Proficient – Exhibits APA formatting throughout the paper, however, layout contains a few minor errors.Basic – Exhibits basic knowledge of APA formatting throughout the paper. Layout does not meet all APA requirements.Below Expectations – Fails to exhibit basic knowledge of APA formatting. There are frequent errors making the layout difficult to distinguish as APA.Non-Performance – The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.Page RequirementTotal: 0.25Distinguished – The paper meets the specific page requirement stipulated in the assignment description.Proficient – The paper closely meets the page requirements predetermined in the assignment description.Basic – The paper meets over half of the page requirement.Below Expectations – A fraction of the page requirement is completed.Non-Performance – The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.Reference RequirementTotal: 0.25Distinguished – Provides ample resources and uses the correct amount of sources from the specified search agent.Proficient – Provides the approximate number of sources, while using some of the correct search agents specified in the assignment instructions.Basic – Provides over half of the sources required in the assignment instructions.Below Expectations – Barely provides adequate resources and unable to include sources from specified search agent.Non-Performance -The assignment is either non-existent or lacks the components described in the instructions.07ch_youssef_psychology.pdf07ch_youssef_psychology.pdf
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7
Excitement for Work: Creating Work
That Is Motivating
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
1. Define motivation and discuss its basic properties
2. Explain content and process theories of motivation
3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
4. Design jobs to increase motivation
5. Demonstrate how pay programs can increase motivation
6. Explain the effect of motivation on individual performance and organizational outcomes
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Section 7.2 Theories of Motivation
CHAPTER 7
7.1 The Importance of Worker Motivation
What motivates people at work? For the past century, I/O psychologists have been trying to answer this elusive question. Think about how you might answer it. Do coworkers
motivate you? Rewards? Perhaps the fear of punishment? No matter how you respond,
chances are your reasons for doing your job differ from those of your friends, family, and
coworkers. Because everyone has different needs, values, emotions, and personality traits,
each person will likewise possess a different set of factors that drive his or her motivation.
The indeterminate number of variables that influence motivation are what makes studying this topic difficult.
Despite the challenges, researchers have, over time, gained considerable insight into how
to improve worker motivation. This chapter is divided into two sections: The first deals
with content and process theories of motivation, and the second focuses on ways in which
organizations can improve worker motivation. Before discussing the theories, however,
let’s begin by defining motivation and identifying its basic properties.
What Is Motivation?
Motivation is one of the most basic and important drivers of human behavior, especially
when we work. Traditionally, motivation has been viewed as a goal-oriented process that
starts with a need or a deficiency. People have an inherent drive to act or behave in certain
ways in order to meet a goal or alleviate a deficiency.
The three basic elements of motivation are intensity, persistence, and direction. Each of these
elements is required in order for a person to perform a job well. People most commonly
think of intensity, or the amount of effort an individual puts into achieving a goal, when
they think about motivation. However, the direction of the effort also matters: Workers
must direct their efforts toward behaviors that lead to positive outcomes for the organization. Finally, workers must demonstrate persistence—that is, they must be able to continue
working until they achieve the desired outcome. A motivated worker, then, will apply
effort (intensity) as long as it takes (persistence) in such a way (direction) as to achieve the
desired goal.
7.2 Theories of Motivation
In general, the various theories and writings on motivation can be described as focusing on either content or process. Content theories of motivation try to comprehensively
identify what motivates people, whereas process theories of motivation attempt to discover how motivators trigger the drives that can lead to behavior. Both types of theories
are important and informative for people interested in motivating themselves and others
by managing the antecedents and conditions that can facilitate desirable behaviors. To
begin, let’s look at four content theories: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s twofactor theory, Alderfer’s existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory, and McClelland’s
needs theory.
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Section 7.2 Theories of Motivation
CHAPTER 7
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Some content theories of motivation deal with needs, or the physiological and psychological wants or desires people attempt to satisfy by achieving particular goals. These
theories aim to identify not only the different needs people have but also the conditions
under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to
performance. American psychologist Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, developed
in 1943, is the most influential of the needs-based theories of motivation.
According to Maslow, needs can be organized hierarchically, from the most basic to the most
advanced. Maslow defined five levels of needs, beginning with (1) physiological needs, such
as the need for food, water, and shelter. After satisfying the primary needs, human motivation progresses sequentially through higher levels
of needs, including (2) safety, or the need for physical and emotional security; (3) belonging, or the
need for love, affection, and affiliation; (4) esteem,
or the need for admiration and respect from others; and (5) self-actualization, or the striving toward
the achievement of one’s full potential.
Belonging—the need for love, affection,
and affiliation—is the third level in
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Maslow emphasized the importance of fulfilling
each level of needs sequentially. According to his
theory, a given level of needs will not motivate a
person’s behavior until the needs from preceding
levels have been met. For example, people will
not be motivated to meet their needs to belong
(level 3) until they have met their basic physiological and safety needs (levels 1 and 2, respectively).
Moreover, Maslow argued that once a need has
been satisfied, it ceases to be motivating. Further
motivation requires moving to the next level in the
motivational hierarchy. Finally, in order to achieve
self-actualization, a person must have opportunities for growth and responsibility. This striving
toward personal growth and self-actualization is
what creates long-term worker motivation.
Because it is intuitively logical and easy to use, Maslow’s theory has been highly influential
in the workplace. However, research indicates that the hierarchy of needs is limited, and
some of its precepts can be refuted (Rauschenberger, Schmitt, & Hunter, 1980). For example, many people pursue higher-level needs such as esteem and self-actualization even
when they seem not to have met their most basic needs. Additionally, a person’s need for
self-actualization does not ever seem to reach satiation. In fact, highly accomplished individuals seem to have a stronger need for self-actualization than other people. Despite some
limitations, however, Maslow’s theory offered a significant contribution to the thinking and
practice in the fields of psychology and organizational sciences, as it clearly demonstrated
that workers are motivated by a wide range of needs, not simply the traditional rewards
(such as wages and financial incentives) and punishments (such as job termination).
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CHAPTER 7
Section 7.2 Theories of Motivation
Consider This: Your Needs and Motivation
• Which level of Maslow’s needs applies the most to you right now?
• In relation to Maslow’s hierarchy, have your lower-level needs been satisfied?
• Do you agree with the sequence of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy? Why or why not? How would
you change the sequence based on your own needs and experiences?
Find Out for Yourself: More on Maslow
Visit the website below, which lists publications by and about Maslow, to expand your knowledge
about Abraham Maslow’s seminal work.
http://www.maslow.com/
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
In the 1960s, another American psychologist, Fredrick Herzberg, developed a different
model: Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation, also known as motivation-hygiene theory. The basis for the two-factor theory stemmed from studies in which Herzberg asked
professionals to report incidents at work that exceptionally motivated them as well as
those that exceptionally discouraged them. The professionals’ responses showed consistent themes. The factors related to positive feelings about work, which Herzberg called
motivators, tended to be associated with the job itself, such as job content, responsibilities, and achievements. On the other hand, the factors related to negative feelings, which
Herzberg called hygiene factors, tended to be associated with the job context, such as pay,
working conditions, and the manager’s style. Although hygiene factors can, according to
Herzberg’s theory, prevent job dissatisfaction, only motivators can lead to motivation and
job satisfaction. Examples of motivators and hygiene factors are displayed in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Examples of Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors
Motivator Factors
Hygiene Factors
• Achievement
• Salary and benefits
• Recognition
• Work conditions
• Job characteristics
• Quality of supervision
• Advancement opportunities
• Coworker relationships
• Growth opportunities
• Job security
• Responsibility
• Company policies
The most significant contribution of the two-factor theory is the notion that job content is a
powerful motivator, necessary for the development and retention of the right talent within
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Section 7.2 Theories of Motivation
CHAPTER 7
an organization. At the time of the theory’s inception, the primary emphasis of management was on hygiene factors such as pay, benefits, and working conditions. Although
these peripheral factors are important in attracting new employees, Herzberg found that
they are unlikely to create motivating and satisfying jobs unless complemented with interesting and challenging work.
More recently, researchers have studied the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. As with the two-factor theory, these studies differentiate between motivation
generated by workers’ interest in the job for its own sake (intrinsic motivation) and motivation triggered by tangible, externally generated rewards and/or punishments (extrinsic motivation). Much debate surrounds the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. One side views the two as additive, overlapping, and complementary. For
example, a promotion might be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivating: the former
because the employee desires interesting new work that makes better use of his or her
skills; the latter because the employee needs a larger income. Conversely, some studies
suggest that extrinsic motivation can adversely affect intrinsic motivation. A hobby, for
example, might be interesting and engaging as long as a person does it for fun (intrinsically motivating), but should it become a paying job (motivated by external factors such
as money), it can become yet another chore to complete and thus lose much of its motivational power (Wiersma, 1992).
Consider This: Your Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• What are your most intrinsically motivating activities? List 3–5 activities that you really enjoy
spending time on. These are the types of activities you get fully absorbed in, those that make
you lose track of time and feel really good afterward.
• What are some shared characteristics of those activities?
• How are those activities a reflection of your current needs?
• How would you feel about those activities if you could find a job that would pay you to do them
on a regular basis?
• Do you believe that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are complementary or contradictory?
Explain.
Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s existence relatedness growth (ERG) theory, first published in 1969,
continued to build upon the work of Maslow and Herzberg. ERG recognizes various
types of needs, falling between Maslow’s hierarchy and Herzberg’s two-factor theory
with three basic categories: existence, which includes basic survival needs; relatedness, or
the desire for support, relationships, and recognition; and growth, which deals with selfactualization and esteem needs. Although the categories are hierarchical (existence needs
have priority over relatedness, for example), Alderfer did not necessarily agree with
Maslow’s notion that each level must be attained in sequence before moving on to the
next. Rather, ERG theory holds that individuals may work on meeting different categories
of needs simultaneously. Furthermore, Alderfer recognized a potential regression mechanism, the frustration-regression principle, in which existence and/or relatedness needs
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Section 7.2 Theories of Motivation
CHAPTER 7
resurface when growth needs are frustrated. In
practice, managers can use this knowledge both
to help frustrated employees by meeting their
existence and/or relatedness needs until they are
ready to move forward and to try to avoid regression in the first place by providing employees
with growth opportunities. Because according
to ERG theory, needs fluctuate and evolve, the
theory can help to explain some of the exceptions
that arise in older motivational models, such as
needs that do not ever seem to reach satiation or
the pursuit of higher-level needs when lowerlevel needs have not been met.
McClelland’s Needs Theory
Building on Henry Murray’s (1938) seminal theo- ERG recognizes several basic needs
ries of psychological needs, David McClelland including growth, which deals with selfbegan his investigation into the realm of moti- actualization and esteem needs.
vational needs theory in the late 1950s. Unlike
Maslow, Alderfer, and Herzberg, McClelland developed a nonhierarchical model. His
theory identified three needs that are developed by individual experiences and shared in
varying degrees by all people. These needs motivate specific behaviors:
•
•
•
Need for achievement (nAch): The drive to excel and achieve results; the desire
to gain satisfaction from personal attainment
Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire to form close personal relationships and
to be liked by others
Need for power (nPow): The drive to influence or control others; the desire to be
responsible for others
McClelland predicted that people would be motivated to seek out and perform well in
jobs that matched their needs. For example, high achievers will be motivated by tasks
or jobs that require moderate levels of risk-taking and high levels of responsibility and
feedback, because such work bestows not only a certain level of autonomy and challenge
but also a good chance of success. Consequently, high achievers should perform well in
entrepreneurial activities. On the other hand, high achievers often make poor managers, as they tend to care more about personal success and less about directing other people’s efforts (Miner, Smith, & Bracker, 1994). Individuals with high needs for affiliation or
power have been shown to be more successful managers (Miner, 1965). Team settings may
be more appealing to those with high needs for affiliation than to those with high needs
for achievement or power.
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CHAPTER 7
Section 7.3 Process Theories of Work Motivation
Figure 7.1: Overview of need theories
Alderfer’s
ERG Theory
Growth
Maslow’s
Hierarchy
SelfActualization
Herzberg’s
Two-Factor
Theory
Motivators
Esteem
Relatedness
Love
Safety
Existence
Physiological
Hygienes
From Levy, P. E. (2010). Industrial Organizational Psychology: Understanding the
workplace. (3 ed). New York: Worth. p. 233, Fig. 9.2. Reprinted by permission.
7.3 Process Theories of Work Motivation
As you have learned from the content theories of motivation, people are driven to meet
a variety of needs within their lives. Some needs are more basic and trigger the need to
survive. Others are intrinsic and drive people to achieve a sense of personal fulfillment or
self-actualization. Content theories address what motivates people, but this is not enough to
fully explain motivation. Managers cannot simply peruse a list of needs (content) and then
somehow extrapolate how to motivate their employees (process). This is where process theories of motivation come in. These theories aim to describe the actual process of motivation,
that is, how a person becomes interested in moving from a state of complacency or satisfaction to a state of motivation and change. We will discuss three major process theories in this
section: goal-setting theory, expectancy theory, and equity theory or organizational justice.
Goal-Setting Theory
We have goals in every facet of our lives. People set goals related to personal health, relationships, and financial status. Similarly, organizations set goals concerning work productivity, efficiency, and quality. We live in a goal-oriented society. With all of this goal setting
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Section 7.3 Process Theories of Work Motivation
CHAPTER 7
going on, have you ever wondered if goals actually improve performance? The research is
clear: Goals do positively influence performance—as long as they are designed properly.
Starting in the 1960s, Edwin Locke and his associates have been examining how to design
goals that will motivate workers. Goal-setting theory states that specific, difficult goals
lead to greater performance than vague goals, such as encouraging a person to do her
best (Locke & Latham, 1990). These findings have been supported in both laboratory and
field studies and have been shown to affect the performance of individuals, teams, and
organizations.
Why might specific goals be better than vague ones? In addition to focusing an individual’s attention onto precise objectives, specific goals reduce ambiguity about expected
levels of performance. To enhance a goal’s specificity, managers should include a measurable outcome and set a clear completion date. As an example, let’s examine a familiar goal:
the New Year’s weight loss resolution. People who vow simply to lose weight will lack the
focus needed to make a plan and achieve their goal. On the other hand, people who set a
specific goal with due dates (e.g., lose 20 pounds by June 1) will give themselves a clear
objective they can work to achieve.
Now let’s look at the second finding of goal theory, which states that difficult goals lead to
greater performance than easy ones. As when they are specific, goals that are difficult focus
an individual’s attention onto goal-relevant activities and away from distractions. They also
motivate people to work harder to achieve the goal. Think about your own work habits.
Do you exert the same amount of effort on an easy assignment as you do on a challenging
one? Probably not. Finally, hard goals encourage
greater persistence. Researchers found that when
people are allowed to control the amount of time
they spend on a task, they will work longer when
the goa …
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