Expert answer:History of architecture

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1. Compare and Contrast Modern and Post-Modern Architecture.
Be specific and avoid gross generalizations.
2. What are Le Corbusier’s 5 points of Architecture? What was
his goal in presenting these ideas?
3. Define the term “deconstruction” as it applies to design.
Be specific.
4. Define the term “structuralism” as it applies to design.
Be specific.
5. What characterizes Scandinavian Modernism? Select one
architect and their work to illustrate your points.
6. Louis Sullivan offered a specific vision of the tall
building. Using specific examples, present Sullivan’s key ideas and why these
are uniquely American.
7. Compare and contrast Frank Lloyd Wright’s and Le
Corbusier’s urban ideas.
8. What is the International Style and what are its
characteristics? (Be sure to mention the source of the name in your response.)
9. Using the works of Pritzker Prizeundefined part 1.pdf winner Shigeru Ban as
illustrations, discuss the direction of contemporary architecture.
10. Carefully read each of the following and be prepared to
list its key points and ideas. In your discussion of the reading, be sure to
use appropriate architectural examples.
Wright, “In the Cause of Architecture” [PDF]
Gropius, “Bauhaus Manifesto and Program” [PDF]
Le Corbusier’s “Five Points for
a New Architecture” [PDF]
Kahn, “Silence and
Light” [PDF]
Venturi, excerpt from “Complexity
and Contradiction” [PDF]
corbusier_five_points.pdfgropius_bauhaus_manifesto.pdfkahn_silence_and_light.pdfventuri_complexity_and_contradiction.pdfwright_in_the_cause_of_architecture.pdf
part_1.pdf

part_1.pdf

corbusier_five_points.pdf

gropius_bauhaus_manifesto.pdf

kahn_silence_and_light.pdf

venturi_complexity_and_contradiction.pdf

wright_in_the_cause_of_architecture.pdf

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13.25
William Strutt, Plan of and section through West
Mill, Belper, 1793-95.
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With masonry exterior walls and a grid of interior columns,
this mill has an open, flexible plan. A challenge for architects
during the late-nineteenth century would be expressing this
internal skeleton on the exterior while covering it with
fireproof materials.
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Derby with cast-iron columns; his West Mill at Belper, con­
structed the following year, is similar (Fig. 13.25). The
dust-laden air of textile mills, combined with coagulated
oil and lint on the floors under the machinery and illumi­
nation from open flames, created ideal conditions for mill
fires in which equipment, raw materials, and workers’ lives
were lost. To protect the structure, improve sanitation and
ventilation, and reduce the opportunities for fire, Strutt
and others designed mills with external walls of masonry,
cast-iron internal columns, and protected wood beams. An
early version of “fireproof” construction had the large
wooden floor beams socketed into cast-iron shoes
attached to the cast-iron columns. Segmental brick arches
spanned from beam to beam, supporting level floors
made of sand, screed, and day tiles, with wrought-iron
rods to tie the structure together. Undersides of the
wooden members were coated with plaster; with sand on
top and plaster below, the wood was protected from fire.
Later improvements to this system substituted wrought­
iron rails (forerunners of rolled !-sections) for the
wooden beams: a surviving example of such a structure is
the former Benyon, Benyon, and Bage Flax Mill at Shrews­
bury in England ( 1796). Eventually the segmental brick
arches at Bel per were discarded in favor of other materials,
but even with these changes, the metal-frame structure of
today remains essentially the same as that built by Strutt
in 1793-95.
Bridge designs, rather than building designs, generally
exploited the structural properties of cast and wrought
iron most directly, and it is there that the new materials
were first used eloquently. For example, Darby and
Pritchard’s work on Coalbrookdale Bridge was soon sur­
passed by Thomas Telford ( 1 757-1834), who built an
iron bridge three miles upstream at Buildwas in 1795-98.
Telford’s segmental-arch bridge spanned 130 feet, with a
rise of twenty-seven feet; he used less than half the iron
required to construct the Coalbrookdale Bridge while
ROMANTICISM AND THE P ICTURESQUE
achieving a longer span. Engineers in the nineteenth
century continued to reduce material-to-load ratios and to
experiment with systems, such as tensile structures, that
were impossible in masonry or timber. These develop­
ments will be discussed in the next chapter.
ROMANTICISM AND THE PICTURESQUE
Industrialization and rapidly developing new technologies
hardly pleased everyone. Many saw them as a bane and
looked for philosophical positions that would render
them unnecessary. Even as Neo-Classical architects and
antiquarians were using reason and intellect to reassess the
past through archaeological work and scholarly inquiry, a
parallel and often overlapping orientation in art and archi­
tecture was developing. Its beginnings can be seen in the
English landscape movement that accompanied the Neo­
Palladians during the first half of the eighteenth century.
Developed further and driven by imagination and
emotion, it became Romanticism. In some respects
Romanticism was a reaction against the order and regular­
ity inherent in Neo-Classicism; in others it was an expres­
sion of deeply held religious and moral convictions.
Romantics delighted in the asymmetrical and the irregular
for their highly picturesque qualities. Contradictory as this
may seem at first to the ideals of Neo-Classicism, Roman­
ticism was actually a complementary movement, and a
number of established Neo-Classicists designed Romantic
works as well. For example, Piranesi’s engravings, which
were manifestations of Neo-Classicism, fired the Roman­
tic mind. His scenes of fallen vaults and moldering, half­
buried monuments populated by enigmatic, tattered
beggars expressed the Romantic longing for a perfect place
and a perfect time that would remain always remote and
unreachable. Ruins in general became a Romantic obses­
sion, as their ruggedness, wildness, and fragmentation
415
illustrated the powerlessness of men and women in the
face of irresistible natural forces and the melancholy
relentless erosion of their works over time.
The esthetic doctrine of Romanticism was the Pic­
turesque. Edmund Burke wrote about this doctrine in his
A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas on the
Sublime and the Beautiful (1756). Here he differentiated
between picturesque conditions that were beautiful-pos­
sessed of such qualities as delicacy and smoothness-and
those that were sublime-possessed of such alternative
qualities as power, vastness, and obscurity.
It is clear that Boullee’s interest in enormous structures
aligns him with the sublime. Looking forward into the
nineteenth century, it is equally clear that Romanticism
could find fertile ground in an era that would become
dominated by new sources of energy and huge machines,
as the fruits, both sweet and bitter, of rapid social and
technological change altered forever the scale and speed of
daily life.
THE ROMANTIC LANDSCAPE
William Kent’s Nee-Palladian landscape creations, includ­
ing the grounds of Holkham Hall ( see Figure 13.4), are
probably more important than his architectural contribu­
tions. He is regarded as one of the founders of the English
landscape-garden tradition, in which the landscape archi­
tect exaggerated and “improved” on natural qualities.
Instead of the rigid geometric plantings favored by the
French, English garden designers cultivated a certain irreg­
ular wildness. They exploited the natural contours of the
land, formed trees into apparently natural patterns, and
416
developed seemingly fortuitous, but actually carefully con­
trived, views of carefully sited buildings. Likewise, equally
carefully planned views from the windows of buildings
extended beyond nearby dumps of trees into the more
distant landscape, where cows grazed as in a landscape
painting. A ditch with a fence or hedge at its bottom pre­
vented the cows from encroaching upon the lawns in the
immediate vicinity of the house; discovery of this con­
cealed barrier was a surprise, causing one to laugh or
exclaim, “Aha! “-thus providing the name ha-ha for this
landscape device. To the Neo-Palladians, who saw
“natural” qualities in the architecture of Palladia and
Inigo Jones, there was nothing contradictory in having a
symmetrical classical house set in a landscape with natu­
ralistic elements that reflected a painter’s vision of the
Roman countryside.
Lancelot Brown ( 1 716-83) was tl1e leading promoter
of this picturesque attitude toward landscape architecture.
When asked his opinion of any piece of ground, he would
say that it had “capabilities,” and thus he became known
as Capability Brown. He practiced as an architect in the
Palladian tradition, but in that field he was a minor figure
compared to Kent, for whom he worked as a gardener at
Stowe from 1740. However, he knew much more than
Kent about horticulture, expressed his ideas with clarity,
and followed up his plans with informed supervision if
13.26
Lancelot Brown, Blenheim Palace grounds, 1758.
The English Romantic landscape garden drew some of its
inspiration from the garden traditions of China. The English
sought to imitate the irregularity of nature rather than
artificially ordering natural elements in geometric patterns
as in the Italian and French garden traditions.
CHAPTER 1 3
T H E E I G H T E E N T H C E N T U RY
13.27
Richard Mique, Hamlet,
Versailles, 1778.
Raised in a family of architect·
contractors, Richard Mique
studied with J.F. BlondeI. Once at
Versailles, he succeeded Ange­
Jacques Gabriel as the king’s
principal architect. Along with the
hamlet he designed a temple of
love, a theater, and a grotto with
a waterfall.
the client requested it. Among his most celebrated works
are the relandscaped gardens and park at Blenheim Palace
(Fig. 13.26), laid out after 1764 and still extant. This plan
included the creation of a serpentine lake and an encir­
cling drive, the planting of tree clusters that still make a
pleasing dappled pattern in the landscape, and intermit­
tent views o( the building. Brown’s impact on the English
landscape can hardly be overstated. Working throughout
the length and breadth of the nation, he transformed large
areas of unkempt countryside into the kind of lush park­
land for which England has become renowned.
PICTURESQUE B U I LDINGS
Some designers i n France created picturesque architecture
as a way of retreating to what were perceived to be simpler,
more rustic times. At Versailles, the epitome of formality
and pomp, Marie-Antoinette commissioned Richard
Mique ( 1728-1794) to design a hameau or hamlet (Fig.
13.27), based on the folk architecture of her native
Austria. Here, she and her ladies-in-waiting could escape
from the splendors of the court and, in peasant costume,
spend an afternoon playing at being simple milkmaids.
Mique used a variety of materials, textures, and colors in
the hamlet buildings, which were sited intermittently
around an artificial lake. The hamlet anticipates nine­
teenth-century architects’ employment of vernacular
architecture to evoke national character.
Picturesque architecture in England began with follies,
the playful use of medieval-inspired structures or ruins of
structures as focal points in the layout of gardens. At
Hagley Park, Worcestershire, Sanderson Miller built a
sham ruin in the Gothic style in 17 47, and other land­
scape designers soon copied the idea. Horace Walpole had
his house at Strawberry Hill near London put up in a
medieval manner by a committee of architects and literary
friends. Work began in 1 748, and the structure soon
PICTURESQUE BUILDINGS
emerged as an eclectic assortment of Gothic details. The
Holbein Room has a chimneypiece adapted from the
tomb of Archbishop Wareham at Westminster Abbey; the
Long Gallery (page 396) features pendant vaulting based
on that in the Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey;
and the Round Room has ceiling plasterwork inspired by
the rose window of old St. Paul’s Cathedral. The Rococo
chandeliers and purple wallpapers used throughout con­
tribute to a sense of playfulness in this passionate, pic­
turesque amusement. This early phase of Romanticism in
England is often termed “Gothick” (the spelling is delib­
erately medievalized) to reflect the rather lighthearted
character of the work.
While the interior treatments at Strawberry Hill are
interesting for their na”ive antiquarian enthusiasm, the
exterior is equally interesting for its attitude toward
Picturesque massing. To understand this, it is necessary
first to consider the plan, which has virtually no tradi­
tional formal order. Certainly there is a clear functional
division between Walpole’s rooms and those for his ser­
vants and other such practical concessions to the activities
of daily life. However, to appreciate the house’s design
fully, one must view it externally and in three dimensions.
Here, it becomes clear that Walpole, amateur though he
was, intended for Strawberry Hill to present a rich silhou­
ette against the sky, intended that its character should
change as one moved around the perimeter, and intended
for the ensemble to appear as though it had been built not
all at one time, but had grown up randomly over time as
had its medieval inspirations. This was a new way of think­
ing about building composition and one that would be
fully exploited in the nineteenth century. Likewise, nine­
teenth-century scholars would make an intense study of
Gothic buildings, establish a chronology of Gothic stylis­
tic development, and master the recomposition of accu­
rately reproduced Gothic elements. And the return of the
Gothic would be only one among many such revivals in
an era of rampant borrowing from the past, or eclecticism.
417
C H A PT E R 1 4
NINETE ENTH ­
C ENTURY
DEVE LOPM ENTS
A
rchitecture in the nineteenth century was perhaps
more varied than ever before. The freedoms
introduced by Neo-Classicism and Romanticism
encouraged revivals of historical styles, such as
Gothic, Greek, Islamic, Egyptian, Byzantine, and Early
Christian, along with inventive new creations, such as the
Chinoiserie, Japonais, Moorish, and Hindoo styles. As
illustrations of this phenomenon, consider some English
and American buildings designed after 1800. Colonial
officials returning from India with their fortunes to retire
in England built pleasure palaces such as Sezincote (Fig.
14.1) in Gloucestershire, its skin designed in the Indian
manner in 1 805 by Samuel Pepys Cockerell ( 1 754-1827)
for his brother Charles. In the same spirit, between 1 81 8
and 1 821, John Nash ( 1752-1835) built the Royal
Pavilion at Brighton for the Prince Regent.
In many cases, styles were chosen because of their asso­
ciations. For instance, the Egyptian style was proposed for
buildings related to medicine, which was considered to
have originated in the Nile Valley, and to death, since the
great monuments of Egypt were erected for the pharaohs
and their journey in the afterlife, or wherever suggestions
of massiveness or eternity were desired, as in factories,
prisons (Fig. 14.2), suspension bridges, and libraries. In
the United States, Benjamin Henry Latrobe ( 1 764-1820)
proposed an Egyptian-style Library of Congress within the
U.S. Capitol, and Henry Austin built Egyptian cemetery
gates at New Haven in 1 837. Thomas S. Steward selected
the Egyptian style for the Medical College of Virginia in
Richmond ( 1 854 ), as also did William Strickland ( 1 7 881854) for the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville
14.1
Samuel Pepys Cockerell, Sezincote, Gloucestershire,
1805.
This Moorish Gothic Revival structure is perhaps more exotic
than most nineteenth-century English country houses, but it
does not overstate the era’s eclectic attitude. Made possible
by the new consciousness of architecture’s history,
eclecticism made it fashionable to copy, borrow, and mix
elements and styles from the past with few reservations.
14.2
John Haviland, City Prison (The Tombs), New York
City, 1838.
Eclecticism in America combined Greek. Roman, Gothic, and
Italian Renaissance motifs, among others. Here, John
Haviland chose Egyptian Revival columns supporting a coved
entablature. At the time, the Egyptian style was associated
with security because of the many celebrated tombs-hence
the prison’s epithetical name.
Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, Paris, 1889.
The Eiffel Tower was seen as a blight on the Parisian skyline
when it was built; it was maintained initially in part because
of its use as a radio tower. Today it has become a symbol of
Paris itself.
N I N ET E E N T H – C E N T U RY D EV E L O P M E N T S
419
( 1 848). The church has a later but equally remarkable
Egyptian interior, including a hypostyle hall painted in
perspective on a wall.
Progress in materials science enabled architects and
engineers to tackle construction problems in fundamen­
tally new ways, contributing further to the diversity
observable in nineteenth-century work. Buildings in
Britain and the United States now termed “Victorian”
often have little in common with one another, save that
they were built during the exceptionally long reign
( 1 83 7 – 1 901) of Queen Victoria. Amid the stylistic revivals
and engineering accomplishments came trends in design
that were to have a major impact on twentieth-century
architecture. This chapter addresses these developments.
N EO-CLASSICISM
Ledoux but relied much more on the elements of Greek
architecture. Akin to Alberti, Schinkel saw architecture as a
means to foster civic consciousness and saw polis-driven
Greek classicism as its ideal symbolic language. He joined
the Prussian public works office at the conclusion of the
Napoleonic Wars, at a time when Prussia was seeking to
raise its stature to that of a major European state with
Berlin as its capital.
The Neue Wache ( 1 81 7 – 1 8), or Royal Guard House
(Fig. 14.3), located on the Unter der Linden, Berlin’s most
important ceremonial street, celebrated the emerging
power of Prussia under King Friedrich Wilhelm III.
Schinkel’s final proposal placed a Doric portico between
heavy pylons, both detailed with such austerity that the
building achieves monumentality despite its modest size.
Here, Schinkel succeeded in uniting the architectural
forms of fortification and civic splendor.
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL
Nineteenth-century Neo-Classicism in the area equivalent
to modem-day Germany is most closely identified with
the work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel ( 1 781 -1 841), who
shared some of the formal concerns of Boullee and
420
14.3
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Neue Wache, Berlin, 1817-18.
Here Schinkel projected a classical temple front forward
from a pylon-like block. While modest in size, it is made
monumental by Schinkel’s skilful handling of proportions.
C H APTER 1 4
N I N E T E E N T H – C E N T U RY D E V E L O P M E N T S
In the summer of 1 817, the Prussian national theater
in Berlin, designed by Carl Gotthard Langhans in
1800-02, burnt to the ground. By early 1818, Schinkel had
produced a new design for the Schauspielhaus (Fig. 14.4)
to sit atop the old foundations between existing French
and German churches. Schinkel treated the space captured
by them and by his new structure as a great vestibule and
placed the monumental entry stair on the outside, unlike
the practice in Neo-Classical France where the stair
became part of the initial, dazzling interior space.
Schinkel’s stair leads to a building at once monumental,
taut, and planar. The entire structure is raised on a high
base and is dominated by an Ionic portico with receding
planes to either side articulated by plain pilasters and
precise, shallow moldings that appear to have been
stretched tightly over an internal skeleton. The plan is
equally clever and precise, effortlessly uniting multiple
room sizes within a symmetrical distribution.
Easily Schinkel’s most famous structure is Berlin’s
Altesmuseum, or Old Museum (Fig. 14.5) (1 823-28), the
first public art museum in Europe. He sited it opposite the
existing palace and arsenal to the south, creating a great
civic court with a wall of trees along its east side. The
museum’s fa<;ade is a giant Ionic colonnade raised on a high base and stretching the full width of the building. Its N EO-CLASSICISM 14.4 Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Schauspielhaus, Berlin, 1818-21. For this theater, Schinkel chose a wall treatment of superimposed pilaster strips that anticipates the grid-like fa�ades of twentieth-century skyscrapers. He illustrated it and his other work in his book Sammlung Architektonischer Entwurfe (Colledion ofArchitectural Designs). orthogonal simplicity both creates a sense of urban dignity and prepares the visitor for the clever rigor of the plan behind (Fig. 14.6). Here, Schinkel placed a central rotunda flanked by open courts that are surrounded by flexible gallery spaces. Read as an interlocking set of clas­ sical prototypes, the museum is like the Pantheon caught between two temples both fronted by a stoa. From the second-floor stair landing. a viewer can look back through the double file of columns for a panoramic view of Schinkel's Berlin. Schinkel was equally deft in manipulating the pic­ turesque vocabulary of Romanticism. At the Charlottenhof near Potsdam ( 1 829-31), he placed individually symmet­ rical, classically inspired buildings (Fig. 14.7a) in an infor­ mal but carefully conceived landscape setting that includes water feature ... Purchase answer to see full attachment

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