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Meaningful Learning:
A Review of Research on Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning
By Dr. Brigid Barron and Dr. Linda Darling-Hammond, Stanford University
“Decades of research illustrate the benefits of inquiry-based and
cooperative learning to help students develop the knowledge and skills necessary
to be successful in a rapidly changing world.”
ince “A Nation at Risk”
was published a quartercentury ago, mountains of
reports have been written
about the need for more
powerful teaching and
learning focused on the
demands of life and work in the twenty-first
century. Consider this: In 1900, 95 percent
of all jobs were low skilled and required only
that employees could follow basic procedures
designed by others. In 2008, many jobs require
specialized knowledge and skills. Today’s
employees must be able to communicate
and collaborate, research ideas, and collect,
synthesize, and analyze information. They
need to develop new products and to be able
to apply different areas of knowledge to new
problems and challenges.
In short, the nature of work has changed—
and continues to do so. According to the U.S.
Department of Labor, the average worker will
hold more than 10 jobs before the age of 40.
The top 10 “in demand” jobs projected for
2010 did not exist in 2004.
The changing workforce and the need for socalled twenty-first-century skills have changed
what it means to provide every child with an
effective education that prepares them for a
full and productive life. It’s no longer enough
to simply transmit information that students
memorize and store for future use. Education
today must focus on helping students learn how
to learn, so they can manage the demands of
changing information, technologies, jobs, and
social conditions.
How do we prepare our students for these
twenty-first-century skills?
Traditional academic approaches—narrow
tasks that emphasize memorization or the
S
application of simple algorithms—won’t
develop students who are critical thinkers or
students who can write and speak effectively
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999;
Bransford & Donovan, 2005). To develop
these higher-order skills, students need to
take part in complex, meaningful projects that
require sustained engagement, collaboration,
research, management of resources, and the
development of an ambitious performance or
product.
In fact, a growing body of research suggests
that students learn more deeply and perform
better on complex tasks if they have the
opportunity to engage in more “authentic”
learning—projects and activities that require
them to employ subject knowledge to solve realworld problems. Studies have shown a positive
impact on learning when students participate
in lessons that require them to construct and
organize knowledge, consider alternatives,
engage in detailed research, inquiry, writing,
and analysis, and to communicate effectively
to audiences (Newmann, 1996). For example,
a study of more than 2,100 students in 23
schools found significantly higher achievement
on intellectually challenging performance
tasks for students who experienced this kind
of “authentic pedagogy” (Newmann, Marks, &
Gamoran, 1995). Indeed, use of these practices
resulted in stronger performance regardless of
race, gender, or prior achievement.
The research highlighting the benefits of
authentic learning, together with a growing
interest in providing students with more
engaging, thought-provoking learning
opportunities, has prompted teachers at all
grade levels to experiment with incorporating
inquiry-based learning into their curriculum.
But interest alone does not make for effective
implementation of new models. Indeed,
“learning by doing” has a somewhat checkered
track record, in part because teachers often lack
the information, support, and tools necessary
to fully integrate and support this alternative
approach to teaching and learning.
This chapter seeks to expand our knowledge
of the benefits of inquiry-based learning, as
well as to deepen our understanding of the
components of an effective inquiry-based
lesson or unit. We’ll explore three approaches
to inquiry-based learning: project-based
learning, problem-based learning, and
learning by design, highlighting key research
and unpacking important elements of each
approach.
A Pathway to Deeper Knowledge
Project-based learning involves completing
complex tasks that typically result in a realistic
product, event, or presentation to an audience.
Thomas (2000) identifies five key components
of effective project-based learning. It is: central
to the curriculum, organized around driving
questions that lead students to encounter
central concepts or principles, focused on a
constructive investigation that involves inquiry
and knowledge building, student-driven
(students are responsible for designing and
managing their work), and authentic, focusing
on problems that occur in the real world and
that people care about.
Generally, research on project-based
learning (PBL) has found that students who
engage in this approach benefit from gains in
factual learning that are equivalent or superior
to those of students who engage in traditional
forms of instruction (Thomas, 2000). The
goals of PBL are broader, however, than simply
the development of content knowledge. This
ideas well enough to answer the questions of others.
There are many ways in which performance assessments conafA,RoV,fojAp,.
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performance. These opportunities help students examine both how
they learn and how to improve their performance. Students are often expected to present their work to an audience, such as groups
of faculty, visitors, parents, or other students, to ensure that their
mastery is genuine. These public presentations signal to students
that their work is valued and reinforce the significance of their tasks
in a real-world context.
In the table below, we summarize the types of assessment that
-)
can be used in inquiry-based lessons. As the table shows, assessment strategies can include rubrics that are applied to artifacts,
Assessment Matters
How we assess students—both formatively and summatively—has
enormous implications for what we teach and how effectively we
teach it. In collaborative and inquiry approaches to learning, three
components of instruction—assessments, classroom activities, and
curriculum—are interdependent components of a system that can be
designed to promote flexible knowledge development.
Assessment systems that support cooperative and inquiry approaches to learning share three key characteristics:
• Intellectually ambitious performance assessments that enable
students to learn and apply desired concepts and skills in authentic
and disciplined ways.
• Evaluation tools, such as assignment guidelines and rubrics,
which define what constitutes good work and effective collaboration.
• Formative assessments to guide feedback to students and to
shape their instructional decisions throughout a unit.
As teachers of all grade levels recognize, the types of assessments used play a significant role in shaping the work students are
asked to undertake. Research suggests that inquiry-based learning
demands thoughtfully structured performance assessments, both
to define the tasks students are engaged in and to properly evaluate what has been learned. Good performance assessments are
complex intellectual, physical, and social challenges. They stretch
students’ thinking and planning abilities, while also allowing student
aptitudes and interests to serve as a springboard for developing
competence.
Through these tasks, students are not only required to demonstrate their competencies, but the tasks themselves require use
of critical skills, including planning, setting priorities, organizing
individual and group efforts, exerting discipline, determining how
to communicate effectively with an audience, and understanding
Type of Assessment
Rubrics
Solution Reviews
Whole Class Discussion
Performance Assessments
Written Journals
Portfolios
Weekly Reports
Self-Assessment
whole class discussions, midcourse design reviews, performance
assessments, and new-transfer problems. The most effective inquirybased approaches use a combination of informal ongoing formative
assessment and project rubrics that communicate high standards
and help teachers make judgments about the multiple dimensions
of project work. For rubrics to be useful, they must include scoring
guides that specify criteria, ideally written for both teachers and students.
An important aspect of ongoing assessment is the development
of students’ capacity to assess their own work, so that they internalize standards and become aware of and thoughtful about their own
learning. The power of these approaches has been illustrated in many
studies, including a comparison group study that evaluated the impact of self-assessment on student learning in twelve inquiry-based
middle school science classrooms. The experimental groups spent
half of their time in discussion structured to promote self- and peer
assessment of cognitive goals and processes, while the control group
used this time for general discussion of the concept.
The study found that students involved in self-assessment showed
significantly larger gains on both a conceptual physics test and on
project scores, and that students with low pretest scores showed
the largest gain on all of the outcome measures. Another analysis of
formal and informal self-evaluation processes concluded that an integrated practice of self-assessment led students to assume greater
responsibility for their own learning.
Well-crafted performance assessments can also lead to better
teaching. For example, teachers who have been involved in scoring
performance assessments with other colleagues and discussing
their students’ work have reported becoming more problem-oriented
and more diagnostic in their teaching.
Two final notes: For assessments to serve the critical functions
detailed above, they must be grounded in a conception of learning as
developmental and in a belief that all students will learn from experience and feedback, rather than being constrained by innate ability.
It is also important to remember that the most effective performance assessments are part of a related set of practices that include the integration of assessment and instruction, systematic use
of iterative cycles of reflection and action, and ongoing opportunity
for students to improve their work.
Form of Feedback
Detailed specifications of students’ work products, with levels of progress defined. Students should
understand the rubric before beginning the work and should revisit it throughout a project.
A public opportunity for students to show work in progress and obtain feedback from peers,
teachers, or other community members.
Structured classroom discussions that provide a venue for the vetting of ideas and explanations
and surface misconceptions that can be addressed mid-project.
Individual or small-group projects, usually of short duration, that enable teachers to assess students’
ability to apply acquired knowledge in a new context.
Students maintain an ongoing record of experiences, reflections, and problem-solving throughout a project.
Students compile a collection of their work over time, usually highlighting progress and including
personal reflection.
Students create weekly written responses to a set of simple questions throughout the duration
of a project.
Students evaluate their own work according to predefined criteria, often using such tools,
such as a rubric or focus questions.
„,,
approach aims to take learning one step further
by enabling students to transfer their learning
to new kinds of situations and problems
informing school officials about problems
faced by homeless students (Penuel, Means,
& Simkins, 2000). The students in the
multimedia program earned higher scores
than the comparison group on content
they have solved the problem. The problems
are realistic and have multiple solutions and
methods for reaching them, rather than a
single “right” approach.
In all problem-based approaches,
students take an active role in building their
and to use knowledge more proficiently in
performance situations.
Some examples illustrate this point.
mastery, sensitivity to audience, and coherent
Shepherd (1998) studied the results of a design. They performed equally well on knowledge, while the teacher’s role is to make
thinking visible, guide the group process and
unit in which a group of fourth and fifth graders standardized test scores of basic skills.
Other short-term, comparative studies of participation, and to ask questions to solicit
completed a nine-week project to define and
find solutions related to housing shortages in traditional vs. project-based approaches have reflections. In short, the goal for teachers is
several countries. In comparison to the control demonstrated several benefits from projects, to model good reasoning strategies and to
group, the students engaged in project-based such as an increase in the ability to define support the students to take on these roles
learning demonstrated a significant increase problems (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, themselves. Teachers also offer instruction in
in scores on a critical-thinking test, as well as 1992), growth in their ability to support their more traditional ways, such as lectures and
reasoning with clear arguments (Stepien, explanations that are crafted and timed to
increased confidence in their learning.
A more ambitious,
longitudinal Gallagher, & Workman, 1993), and enhanced support inquiry.
Much of the research into problem-based
comparative study by Boaler (1997, 1998) ability to plan a project after working on an
followed students over three years in two analogous problem-based challenge (Moore, learning is associated with medical education,
British schools that were comparable with Sherwood, Bateman, Bransford, & Goldman, where this approach is widely used. For
respect to students’ prior achievement and 1996). Additional studies have documented example, physicians-in-training are typically
socioeconomic status, but that used either positive changes for teachers and students presented with a patient profile, including
the patient’s history and
a traditional curriculum or a
“Students
who
may
struggle
in
traditional
symptoms.
Using this
project-based curriculum. The
information,
a
small group
traditional school featured instructional settings have often been found
of
medical
students
teacher-directed whole
to excel when they work in a PBL context.” generate a diagnosis must
and
class instruction organized
around texts, workbooks, and frequent in motivation, attitude toward learning, and then conduct research and perform diagnostic
tests in tracked classrooms. Instruction in skills, including work habits, critical thinking tests in order to identify possible causes of the
the other school used open-ended projects skills, and problem-solving abilities (see, e.g. pain or illness. The instructor typically plays a
in heterogeneous classrooms. Using a pre- Bartscher, Gould, & Nutter, 1995; Peck, Peck, coaching role throughout the process. Metaand post-test design, the study found that Sentz, & Zasa, 1998; Tretten & Zachariou, analyses of studies have found that medical
although students had comparable learning 1995). Interestingly, students who may students who are enrolled in problem-based
gains when tested on basic mathematics struggle in traditional instructional settings curricula score higher on clinical problemprocedures, those who had participated have often been found to excel when they solving measures and on actual ratings of
in the project-based curriculum did better have the opportunity to work in a PBL context, clinical performance (Vernon & Blake, 1993;
on conceptual problems presented in the which better matches their learning style or Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) than peers who
National Exam. Significantly more students in preference for collaboration and activity type are not enrolled in such programs. Similar
the project-based school passed the National (see, e.g., Boaler, 1997; Meyer, Turner, & problem- or case-based approaches have been
Exam in year three of the study than those Spencer, 1997; Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 1998). used in business, law, and teacher education
to help students learn to analyze complex,
in the traditional school. Boaler noted that,
multifaceted situations and to develop
although students in the traditional school Students as Problem Solvers
“thought that mathematical success rested on Problem-based learning approaches are a knowledge to guide decisionmaking (see, e.g.
being able to remember and use rules,” the close cousin of project-based learning. Lessons Lundeberg, Levin, & Harrington, 1999; Savery
PBL students had developed a more flexible, typically involve a specific type of activity & Duffy, 1996; Williams, 1992).
For example, research has found that the
useful kind of mathematical knowledge that focused on using reasoning and resources to
use
of cases in teacher education can help
engaged them in “exploration and thought” solve a problem.
prospective
teachers learn to apply theory and
In
problem-based
learning,
students
work
(Boaler, 1997, p. 63).
practical
knowledge
to specific school contexts
in
small
groups
to
investigate
meaningful
A third study, designed to assess the impact
of the development of multimedia projects on problems, identify what they need to learn and think through and resolve classroom
student learning, showed similar gains. In this in order to solve a problem, and generate dilemmas more productively. Through the
example, researchers created a performance strategies for solution (Barrows, 1996; Hmelo- use of case methods in which they analyze
task in which students participating in the Silver, 2004). They also implement these their practice and its outcomes —as well as
Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project and a strategies, evaluate their results, and continue the practice of others—teachers grow more
comparison group developed a brochure to generate new strategies as needed until capable of framing problems, drawing lessons
–
math’s sake, or science for science’s sake. We
believe that the test scores will take care of
themselves.”
By test scores, or almost any account, ELS
has a successful track record in education reform. After just six years in operation, Congress
hailed it as a national educational model and
was signing up schools from coast to coast.
In 2003, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
awarded it a five-year, $12.6 million grant to
create twenty small college-preparatory high
schools.
That track record was one reason the Kauffman Foundation chose to partner with ELS. Another was diversity.
“In Kansas City, we have a huge range of
school settings—large, small, rural, urban, suburban, wealthy, not wealthy—so we looked hard
to find an innovative program that could accommodate our needs,” says Margo Quiriconi, the
organization’s director of research and policy.
“Their model has been successfully implemented in almost every kind of school imaginable.”
Getting Buy-In
This success is due in part to an ELS mandate
regarding program buy-in: Before a school can
apply, the school board must unanimously approve it, and 80 percent of school staff must
agree on the proposal.
“Even though this is a school-based model,
not a district-based model, we can’t pick a school if we don’t
have support from the top down,” says Corey Scholes, a former K-8 principal who is now the ELS representative working
with the Bonner Springs schools. “Changing an entire school
culture is really hard work. You just can’t do it without the
support of both administration and the teachers. The Bonner
Springs school system showed an intense dedication to the
model.”
Joseph DiPinio, principal
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