Expert answer:quick and urgent- urban geography
Solved by verified expert:please answer the following.. no lengthy answers required1. What is the hydraulic civilization model? Does this model address the development of all urban hearths> Why or why not?2. What is an urban footprint and what affect does this have on the natural environment?the attached ppt should help
ch10.pptx
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CONTEMPORARY
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
CULTURE, GLOBALIZATION, LANDSCAPE
MONA DOMOSH
RODERICK P. NEUMANN
PATRICIA L. PRICE
C. 2015 W.H. FREEMAN & CO.
URBAN GEOGRAPHY
A WORLD OF CITIES
URBANIZATION THROUGH TIME
• Today, just over half—54%—of human beings live in
cities. By the year 2050, the UN estimates that this
figure will stand at 70%.
FIGURE 10.1 People living in cities.
This graph depicts the changing
percentage, and total number, of
people living in urban areas across
the century spanning 1950 to
2050. (Source: United Nations,
Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, Population Division.)
10.1 REGION
PATTERNS AND PROCESSES
OF URBANIZATION
• There are differing patterns of urbanized population—the
percentage of a nation’s population living in towns and
cities—around the world.
• Almost all the worldwide population growth in the next
several decades will be concentrated in urban areas,
with cities of the less developed regions accounting for
most of that increase.
• Complicating the understanding of the processes of
urbanization is a lack of a standard definition of what
constitutes a city …
• Criteria used to calculate a country’s urbanized
population differ from nation to nation … can result in
misleading conclusions regarding urbanization data.
Figure 10.2 Urbanized population in the world. Just over half—54 percent—of
the world’s inhabitants live in cities. (Source: United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
URBANIZATION
• For most of our existence we humans have lived in small,
nomadic groups of 25 to 50 hunter-gatherers.
• Such groups eventually became sedentary and formed
into small villages.
• In the Middle East, a network of permanent agricultural
villages developed about 10,000 years ago. These
farming villages were modest in size.
• Neolithic settlements that date from around 9000 B.C.E.
(Jericho) and 7500 B.C.E. (Çatalhöyük, in modern-day
Turkey) are considered by some archaeologists to be the
earliest real cities, but some disagree.
THE FIRST TRUE CITIES
• Urban settlements dating to around 4000 B.C.E. in
Mesopotamia were without doubt true cities.
• Mesopotamian cities covered 0.5 to 2 square mi
(1.3 to 5 square km), with populations that rarely
exceeded 30,000.
• Densities within these cities could easily reach 10,000
people per square mi (4000 per square km), which is
comparable to the densities in many contemporary
cities.
• Not all city dwellers were involved in obtaining food =
qualitative difference compared to farm villages.
Figure 10.5 Early Mesopotamian and Egyptian cities. Note the location of
these earliest cities: almost all are situated along rivers.
REQUIRED ELEMENTS FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
• Two elements were necessary for the first true cities
to form:
❖ The creation of an agricultural surplus
❖ The development of a stratified social system
MODELS FOR THE RISE OF CITIES
• The hydraulic civilization model assumes that the
development of large-scale irrigation systems was
the primary driver of urbanization and that a class
of technical specialists were the first urban dwellers.
• The hydraulic civilization model fits several areas
where cities first arose—China, Egypt, and
Mesopotamia—but it cannot be applied to all
urban hearths.
• In parts of Mesoamerica, an urban civilization
blossomed without widespread irrigated agriculture
and without a class of technical experts.
URBAN HEARTH AREAS
• The first cities appeared in distinct regions, such as
Mesopotamia, the Nile River valley, Pakistan’s Indus
River valley, the Yellow River valley of China,
Mesoamerica, and the Andean highlands and
coastal areas of Peru – urban hearth areas.
• These first cities in Mesopotamia and elsewhere
were cosmomagical cities, cities that are arranged
spatially according to religious principles.
Axis mundi:
The symbolic center of cosmomagical cities, often
demarcated by a large vertical structure.
Figure 10.6 The world’s first cities arose in six urban hearth areas. The dates
shown are conservative figures for the rise of urban life in each area. For
example, some scholars would suggest that urban life in Mesopotamia
existed by 5000 B.C.E. Ongoing discoveries suggest that urban life appeared
earlier in each of the hearth areas and that there are probably other hearth
areas—in West Africa, for example (see also the World Heritage Site on The
Great Zimbabwe National Monument in Chapter 1).
IMPERIALISM AND URBANIZATION
• There is little doubt that diffusion has been
responsible for the dispersal of the city in historical
times, because the city has commonly been used
as a means for imperial expansion.
• This process did not always proceed without
opposition. The imposition of a foreign civilization on
native peoples was often met with resistance, both
physical and symbolic.
Figure 10.8 The diffusion of urban life with the expansion of certain empires.
What does this map tell us about the importance of urban life to military
conquest?
ANCIENT EMPIRES AND
IMPERIAL EXPANSION
• The ancient Greek civilization, to which both
Western civilization and the Western city trace their
roots, expanded in part through spreading cities
throughout the Mediterranean.
• The Roman civilization supplanted ancient Greece,
and was itself centered on a city: Rome.
• Fundamental to Roman cities was the gridiron street
pattern, composed of straight streets intersecting at
right angles.
Figure 10.9 Ponte-du-Gard, near Remoulins, France. This Roman-era
aqueduct is a striking example of the infrastructure that extended
throughout the Roman Empire. It was built in the first century C.E. and is one
of the best-preserved aqueducts in existence. (Lucyna Koch/Getty Images.)
ANCIENT CITIES OUTSIDE
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
• By 400 C.E., the Roman Empire had declined. The
highway system fell into disrepair, and cities were
destroyed or left to decay, becoming small villages.
• The urban areas, as with the rest of the territory formerly
under Roman rule, fell into the Dark Ages.
• Cities in other parts of Europe and in other world regions,
however, thrived. Spanish cities flourished thanks to the
North African Moorish imperial presence in Iberia from
the 8th to 15th centuries.
• Chinese cities and cities in the Americas also thrived
during this time (e.g., Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City).
Figure 10.10 Pre-conquest Tenochtitlan. This image, a detail from a mural by
Mexican artist Diego Rivera, shows Tenochtitlan in the background. Notice
how orderly, clean, and happy this painting makes this ancient city—today
known as Mexico City—look. (Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at Art
Resource, NY.)
CITIES OF THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• The connection of agricultural innovations with the rise of
cities is referred to as the first urban revolution.
• The second urban revolution arose as societies in Western
Europe, and later North America, became industrialized.
• Capitalism reshaped cities of Western Europe beginning in
the mid-16th to the mid-18th centuries.
• The capitalist mentality introduced a notion of urban land
as a source of income – residential areas became
segregated by economic class.
• The place of work became spatially distinct from the home.
URBAN LOCATION
• Early cities tended to be located in places that
were easily defended—on islands, hilltops, sheltered
harbors, or river bends—or along trade routes.
• Industrial-era cities sought locations near sources of
raw materials, such as coal, wood, or metals, used
in factories.
• Location along trade routes continued to be
important but the parameters broadened.
Figure 10.12 The classic defensive site of Mont St. Michel, France. A small town
clustered around a medieval abbey, which was originally separated from the
mainland during high tides, Mont St. Michel now has a causeway that
connects the island to shore, allowing armies of tourists to penetrate the
town’s defenses easily. (Mopy/Rapho Agence/Science Source.)
Figure 10.13 Pittsburgh’s Golden Triangle. The Allegheny River meets the
Monongahela River at the site shown in the photograph. Both rivers were
early trade routes. Today, Pittsburgh’s commercial center is located at their
juncture. (Radius/Radius/Superstock.)
MODELS OF URBAN SPACE
• Central place theory (Christaller-1933) is a set of
models that attempts to understand why cities are
located where they are, as well as to help planners
position cities in space most efficiently.
• Christaller understood cities primarily as economic
centers concerned with distributing goods to
people, who would travel certain distances to
acquire them.
• These travel distances dictated the placement of
different orders of urban settlements.
Figure 10.14 Christaller’s hierarchy of central places shows the orderly
arrangement of towns of different sizes. This is an idealized presentation of
places performing central functions. For each large central place, many
smaller places are located within the larger place’s hinterland.
THRESHOLD AND RANGE
Threshold:
The size of the population required to make the provision of
goods and services economically feasible.
Range:
The average maximum distance people will travel to
purchase a good or service.
• As capitalism shifts from a focus on manufacturing toward
the provision of services and information, the question of
what constitutes an ideal urban location changes again.
• It is no longer as critical to be located near physical
transportation routes as it once was.
10.2 MOBILITY
CAUSES OF MODERN URBANIZATION
• Today, increasing urbanization is caused by three
related phenomena:
❖ Natural population increase
❖ Rural-to-urban migration
❖ Urban-to-urban migration
RURAL-TO-URBAN MIGRATION
• In the United States, rural-to-urban migration (to work in
manufacturing) resulted in growth of large cities such as
Chicago in the 19th century, and large urban centers in
Asia such as Tokyo and Mumbai in the 20th century.
• About 4/5 of the world’s future urban growth will result from
rural-to-urban migration in Asia and Africa.
• Cities can also increase in size because conditions in the
countryside are dismal.
• Many jobs in developing cities are low-skilled and lowpaying, with harsh working conditions … rural-to-urban
migrants are often either unemployed or get jobs that
barely provide a decent living.
WHEN ARE CITIES TOO LARGE?
Megacities:
Particularly large urban centers – over 10 million pop.
• Unemployment rates in cities of the developing
world are often over 50% for newcomers to the city.
• Housing and infrastructure frequently cannot be
built fast enough to keep pace with growth rates.
• Water and sewage systems can rarely handle the
influx of new people.
Figure 10.17 Map of the world’s megalopoli. This map shows the location of
the world’s truly large urban agglomerations. Notice how many of them are
clustered in Asia. (Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, Population Division.)
URBAN PRIMACY
Primate city:
A city of large size and dominant power within a country
(e.g., Buenos Aires and London).
• Most of the world’s population lives in mid-sized cities of
500,000 or less.
• The majority of urban growth today is taking place in
smaller, less dominant cities.
• In the U.S., mid-sized cities, particularly those located in
the Sunbelt, are called “aspirational cities” (e.g.,
Raleigh, Houston, Phoenix, San Antonio, and Las Vegas).
URBAN TRANSPORTATION
• Transportation innovations have shaped and reshaped
the layout and size of cities over time.
Streetcar suburbs:
The extension of urban residential areas along streetcar
lines in the late 19th century.
• No innovation in transportation has had a more
profound impact on cities than the automobile.
• It became possible to locate housing farther from the
urban central business district (CBD) – new automobile
suburbs were viable.
• Cities grew ever-outward in a process known as sprawl.
DOWNSIDES TO URBAN CAR CULTURE
• Automobiles also brought to cities undesirable aspects:
❖Cities became increasingly polluted.
❖Safety became a concern, and automobile
fatalities—for both passengers and pedestrians—are
the leading cause of accidental death.
❖Traffic congestion is a major complaint.
❖Individual commuters spend a great portion of their
day in a car … social isolation and inactivity.
Insert Table 10.1
10.3 GLOBALIZATION
GLOBAL CITIES:
YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND TOMORROW
Global cities:
Cities that are control centers of the global economy (e.g.,
New York City, London, and Tokyo).
• Rather than being just big cities, global cities house a
concentration of multinational and transnational corporate
headquarters, international financial services, media offices,
and related economic and cultural services.
• An argument could be made that cities have long been a
globally relevant mode of human dwelling in the world.
• European colonialism from the 16th to 19th centuries, and
later manifestations of imperialism, can be understood as
primarily an urban-based endeavor.
Figure 10.23 Top 30 global cities. This map shows the location of the world’s
top 30 global cities according to A. T. Kearney. That list used the following
factors to determine global city status: business activity, human capital,
information exchange, political engagement, and cultural experience. Note
the world regions that have the most global cities, as well as those having
none. (Source: A.T. Kearney and The Chicago Council on Global Affairs–2012
Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook, pg. 3.)
THE GLOBALIZATION OF
URBAN WEALTH
• With the rise of the global city comes the rise of the
global cosmopolitan class – individuals who move
with ease from place to place.
• Ease of movement is usually only possible when one
possesses wealth, and global cities are home to a
great deal of wealthy individuals.
• The tastes and needs of the global cosmopolitan
class have shaped the global city in particular ways
(e.g., the prevalence of highly securitized residential
enclaves known as gated communities).
Figure 10.24 Leading global cities of the super-rich. This map of the world’s top
30 global cities shows urban clusters of HNWIs (High Net Worth Individuals).
HNWIs are those who possess more than $30 million in net assets. There are
fewer than 200,000 HNWIs globally, which amounts to .003 percent of the
world’s population. One-third of them reside in the United States. (Source:
http://www.citylab.com/work/2013/03/global-cities-super-rich/4951/.)
THE GLOBALIZATION OF
URBAN POVERTY
• Around the world, unemployment, deterioration of
housing and urban infrastructure, homelessness,
and other manifestations of poverty in the urban
landscape are quite visible.
• Most global cities have pockets of both extreme
wealth as well as its opposite, extreme poverty.
• In cities of the developing world, large numbers of
migrants and widespread unemployment lead to
overwhelming pressure for low-rent housing not
frequently seen in cities in wealthier regions …
shantytowns.
SHANTYTOWNS
Shantytowns:
Precarious and often illegal housing settlements, usually
made up of temporary shelters and located on the
outskirts of a large city.
• Shantytowns are also called favelas, barriadas, squatter
settlements, or slums.
• Over 1 billion people in the world live in slums.
• Shantytowns usually begin as collections of crude shacks
constructed from scrap materials; gradually, they
become increasingly elaborate and permanent.
10.4 NATURE–CULTURE
URBAN WEATHER AND CLIMATE
• Cities alter virtually all aspects of local weather and
climate.
• Temperatures are higher in cities, rainfall increases,
the incidence of fog and cloudiness is greater, and
levels of atmospheric pollution are much higher.
Urban heat island:
A mass of warm air generated and retained by urban
building materials and human activities; it sits over the
city and causes urban temperatures to be greater
than those of surrounding areas.
Figure 10.28 Urban heat island. Cities experience higher than normal air
temperatures, thanks primarily to the heat retaining and deflecting properties
of urban building materials. Cooling these overheated buildings stresses urban
power grids, particularly in the summer. In addition, it is expensive and
contaminates the atmosphere.
URBAN HYDROLOGY
• Residential areas are usually the greatest consumers
of water in urban areas.
• Residential demand is greater in drier climates as
well as in middle- and high-income neighborhoods.
• Urbanization can increase both the frequency and
the magnitude of flooding.
URBAN VEGETATION
• About 2/3 of a typical North American city is composed of trees and
herbaceous plants (mostly weeds in vacant lots and grass in lawns).
Urban Vegetation:
❖Influences quantity and quality
of surface water and
groundwater
❖Reduces wind velocity,
turbulence, and temperature
extremes
❖Affects the pattern of snow
accumulation and melting
❖Offers a habitat for mammals
❖Absorbs airborne particulates
and atmospheric gases
❖Muffles much of the city’s noise
❖Affects distribution of natural and
artificial light
❖Is an important component in
the development of soil profiles
CITIES AND
ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY
• Urbanization generates its own set of environmental
impacts. The extent of these varied impacts of
urban areas on the environment are the urban
footprint (e.g., supplying water to cities by diverting
rivers).
• The environmental effects of increased urbanization
can spread beyond the immediate stresses caused
by higher concentrations of population.
• Growing demand for things like different foods can
impact areas far from urban centers.
Figure 10.29 Desert suburb. This suburb of Las Vegas extends into the desert.
Providing water to its residents is costly and causes environmental damage.
(Cameron Davidson/Getty Images.)
NATURAL DISASTERS
• In urban areas, with their dense concentrations of
people, disasters are more destructive because so many
lives and livelihoods are at risk.
• Since many cities are located near rivers or coasts, they
often lie in the direct paths of disasters such as
hurricanes and tsunamis.
• Sea level rise and storm surges have particularly
impacted cities.
• Rising temperatures have also led to extended summer
heat waves that affect city residents.
THE URBAN RISK DIVIDE
• It is most often poor people who are the most
affected by natural disasters in urban areas, since
they tend to live in structures that are not well built
and in sections of the city that are more vulnerable.
• Shantytowns are frequently situated on steep
hillsides or poorly drained areas, making these areas
far more vulnerable to landslides, flooding, and
other natural disasters.
• The wealthy are not immune to natural disasters
(e.g., Superstorm Sandy).
URBANIZATION, SUSTAINABILITY,
AND RESILIENCE
• Some cities have been leaders in creatively confronting
environmental challenges and reducing risk, while others
have lagged behind.
• As a region, Latin American cities lead the pack, with
95% of the region’s cities engaging in some form of
climate change adaptation planning, while U.S. cities
lag behind all other places at 59%.
• Cities can take some measures that attempt to mitigate,
or lessen, the impact of climate change on natural
systems, humans, and the urban built environment (e.g.,
decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, reconfiguring
urban architecture, etc.).
Figure 10.31 Climate change adaptation planning. This chart shows the
percentage of a region’s cities that are planning for climate change. The
world average of cities engaging in some planning, including U.S. cities, is
68 percent; without U.S. cities, the percenta …
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