Expert answer:Psychological Treatment

Solved by verified expert:In this discussion, you will choose one eating disorder and analyze the treatment options available for that disorder as well as the rationale for their use based on the current understanding of the biological aspects of these conditions. Chapters 9 and 10 in your text analyze topics on neurotransmitters, receptors, and neurotransmitter systems, their role in feeding behaviors and satiety, and the impact of the pathology of selected eating disorders. The “Psychological Treatment of Eating Disorders (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.”, article and the Nutrition and Eating Disorders video expand upon these topics to assist your integration of these concepts as applied to neuropsychological function and dysfunction. Include information on brain structures, nervous system pathways, neurotransmitters/receptors, and psychological, genetic, familial, lifestyle, and environmental factors when analyzing the etiologic theories. Additional emphasis should be placed on relating the proposed etiologic mechanism(s) of the disorder and the recommended treatment(s), as well as providing rationale(s) for treatment success or failure. Include treatments that are based on psychological, medical, pharmacologic (drug), and other available interventions.You must use a minimum of one peer-reviewed source that was published within the last five years, documented in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. Your post should be a minimum of 250 words. You may cite and reference your textbook, required reading and/or multimedia, but these will not fulfill the source requirement.
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9
Eating, Drinking, and
Temperature Regulation
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Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Identify the areas of the hypothalamus responsible for regulation of body temperature and food
and water intake.
Describe the differences between endotherms and ectotherms.
Explain the mechanisms for shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis.
Illustrate what happens when a person is exposed to a cold or a warm environment.
Explain the relationship between Energy IN, Energy OUT, and body weight.
Differentiate between homeostasis and allostasis.
Describe what happens when the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus are lesioned.
Identify drugs, hormones, and neuropeptides that stimulate or inhibit.
Describe possible causes for obesity, bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, and pica.
Explain the differences between regulation of the intracellular and extracellular fluid
compartments in the human body.
Give examples of secondary versus primary drinking.
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A resident of Fresno, California, Dan decided to visit a friend in Arizona. Rather than take the expressway, he decided to drive along Route 190,
which runs through Death Valley. It is a lonely stretch of road, and cars pass by very infrequently. About 20 miles east of Darwin (near the center of
Death Valley), smoke began to pour out from under the hood of his car, and the indicator on the car’s temperature gauge warned that the engine’s
temperature was dangerously high. Dan pulled off the road quickly and opened the hood. Steaming liquid poured out of a crack in the radiator hose.
Standing outside his car, Dan quickly noticed the intense heat of the afternoon sun. He retreated back inside his car to get out of the sun. Next, Dan
devised a fan by folding up a newspaper and fanned himself to cool down. But the sweat just poured off him, and he felt hot and miserable. Less than
an hour later, he became aware of the fact that he was extremely thirsty. His lips were dry, his throat was parched, and all he could think about was a
cool drink of water.
Once help arrived and Dan was ensconced in air-conditioned luxury with a tall glass of ice water, he suddenly felt hungry and realized that he hadn’t
eaten for hours.
Hunger, thirst, and hyperthermia (hyper- means “more than normal” and -thermia means “heat” or “temperature” in Latin) are drive states. A drive is
a condition that motivates an individual to perform a particular behavior or set of behaviors in order to eliminate that condition. That is, when you are
hungry, you fix a sandwich, open a bag of chips, or drive to a fast-food restaurant to satisfy that drive state. The same is true for being thirsty or
overheated (or underheated). You engage in appropriate behaviors to satisfy the state of imbalance produced by the drive.
In this chapter we will look at the regulation of motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and managing temperature. These behaviors appear to
be controlled by particular regions of the hypothalamus, a brain structure that plays an important role in homeostatic regulation. Homeostasis is
derived from two Greek words, homeo-(homos) meaning “same” and -statis meaning “to stand.” Thus, homeostasis involves maintaining certain
biological variables, such as body temperature, body weight, and body fluid volume, at a constant level. Obviously, homeostatic regulation by the
hypothalamus is not perfect. For example, some people overeat and gain weight, thereby overriding their homeostatic mechanism that regulates
eating.
Let’s examine how temperature, food intake, and body fluids are regulated. I have placed a greater emphasis on food intake regulation in this chapter
because physiological psychologists have conducted a vast amount of research on eating behavior.
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9.1 Regulation of Body Temperature
We have a number of classification systems that categorize animals according to their ability to regulate their body temperatures. Aristotle proposed
one of the earliest classification systems, categorizing animals as either warm-blooded or cold-blooded. According to Aristotle’s classification
system, warm-blooded animals are warm to touch, and cold-blooded animals are cool to touch. However, Aristotle’s system runs into trouble when
we try to categorize a reptile, like a lizard, that has been lying in the sun. This lizard feels warm to touch after it has been lying in the sun for some
time, although it feels cool after it has been lying in the shade. Certainly, an animal cannot be both warm-blooded and cold-blooded. Scientists have
developed more precise classification systems since Aristotle’s time.
One modern classification system categorizes animals as endotherms or ectotherms, based on their body’s source of heat. Endotherms are animals
that have an internal source of heat, whereas ectotherms are animals that get their body heat from sources outside their own bodies. Endotherms
produce heat through oxidation of substances such as fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Oxidation is a process of combustion in which substances
are combined with oxygen. Although ectotherms also make use of oxidative processes in their bodies, the heat produced is not controlled or
harnessed by an ectotherm’s central nervous system. In general, endotherms maintain a constant core body temperature and thus are
homeothermic. (Core body temperature refers to the temperature of the body core, which includes the internal organs and the brain.) Birds and
mammals are endotherms, and all other animals are ectotherms.
Balancing Heat Production and Heat Loss
It is nearly impossible to think about heat production without also thinking about heat loss, because these two processes are closely linked in
homeothermic animals (also called homeotherms). In order for a homeotherm to maintain the same body temperature, heat production must be
equal to heat loss. However, it is easier to discuss the mechanisms of heat production independent from heat loss, so this chapter will present the
mechanisms of heat production first, followed by a discussion of heat loss.
Heat Production
Endotherms produce heat by means of two mechanisms: shivering thermogenesis and nonshivering
thermogenesis. Shivering thermogenesis is the production of heat by the rhythmic muscular
contractions that we call shivering. When the hypothalamus detects that the core body temperature has
decreased, it stimulates neurons in the cerebellum that initiate shivering. The cerebellum coordinates
shivering by relaying rhythmic impulses down the spinal cord to motor neurons, which stimulate rhythmic
muscle contraction. When muscles contract, they produce a great deal of heat. If you jog for a block or
so, you will notice immediately that you start to sweat and feel overheated after a few minutes of
exercise. Shivering produces a lot of heat because many muscles are contracting at once, generating
much heat. The colder you become, the more vigorously you shiver. I was so cold once that I could
barely talk because my teeth were chattering so violently.
Nonshivering thermogenesis refers to all the other ways in which we produce heat (besides shivering).
Blend Images/SuperStock
The primary mechanism of nonshivering thermogenesis is basal metabolism. Basal metabolism is the
Photo 9.1 When the hypothalamus
detects that the core body temperature
minimum amount of energy expended while a person is at rest. When you are resting, your heart is
has decreased, it stimulates neurons in
beating, you are breathing, and a reduced number of neurons in your brain are active, but that’s about all the cerebellum that initiate shivering.
that’s happening in your body. However, the muscles in your chest (that is, your heart muscle and the
muscles between your ribs) produce heat, even when you are resting. In fact, when you are resting,
more than 75% of your body’s heat is produced in your chest and head. In contrast, when you are shivering, more than 75% of your body’s heat is
produced by your skeletal muscles. Thus, basal metabolism is an important source of heat production.
Basal metabolism is controlled by thyroid hormones, released by the thyroid gland, that cause an increase in body temperature. The thyroid gland
is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the neck (Figure 9.1). Its functioning is controlled by the pituitary gland, like many of the body’s other glands.
Figure 9.1: The location of the thyroid gland and other endocrine
glands
The thyroid gland, along with the other glands in the body, is controlled by the pituitary gland. How does the
thyroid gland regulate body temperature?
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Recall from Chapter 4 that the hypothalamus regulates the activity of the pituitary gland. When neurons in the hypothalamus detect a drop in the core
body temperature, a command is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland to increase body temperature. In response to the command from
the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone into the bloodstream. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone arrives at the thyroid
gland via the bloodstream and stimulates the thyroid gland to release a number of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones increase the core body
temperature by increasing basal metabolism (Andersson, Ekman, Gale, & Sundsten, 1963). Think for a moment about how this mechanism works:
Basal metabolism is the amount of heat produced at rest. If basal metabolism is increased, then heart rate and respiration rate speed up, producing
more muscle contractions per minute and thus more heat.
Another mechanism of nonshivering thermogenesis is brown fat metabolism. Human babies are born with very immature nervous systems and are
incapable of shivering until they are about 6 months of age. However, newborn humans are born with deposits of brown fat located in strategic areas
of their bodies, at the back of the head and in the chest (McCance & Widdowson, 1977). When the hypothalamus of a newborn detects a decrease in
core body temperature, the hypothalamus directs the burning of brown fat, which produces a good deal of heat, thereby raising the baby’s core body
temperature (Sharma, Ford, & Calvert, 2010; Friedman, 1967). (Most fat in the body is white and produces less heat than brown fat when burned.)
Babies burn off most of their brown fat by the age of six months, although some brown fat is found in adults (Tews & Wabitsch, 2011).
Heat Loss
Heat loss occurs constantly as we lose heat to the environment in several ways. Evaporation is the most effective mechanism that we have for
losing heat. It is the process by which liquid is turned into a gas or vapor. To turn a liquid into vapor requires a lot of heat, approximately one calorie
per gram of liquid for each degree of heat. The heat needed to produce evaporation comes from the body, which results in heat loss for the body
(Figure 9.2). To enhance heat loss through evaporation, humans produce sweat, which is released onto the surface of the skin and subsequently
evaporates, producing heat loss.
Most mammals cannot sweat, but they use the mechanism of evaporation in other ways. For example, dogs and cats (and most other mammals)
lose heat through panting. They produce a bolus of saliva on their tongue and breathe fast and rhythmically through their mouths, causing the saliva
to evaporate, which causes heat loss. Pigs and hippos wallow in mud and then emerge to cool off by letting the wet mud evaporate from their bodies.
In a similar manner, rats, guinea pigs, and kangaroos lick themselves, spreading their saliva all over the surfaces of their bodies. As the saliva
evaporates, it removes heat from their bodies, cooling them (Harkness et al., 2010).
Figure 9.2: Mechanisms of heat loss
To enhance heat loss through evaporation, humans produce sweat, which is released onto the surface of the
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skin and evaporates (Figure A). By contrast, hippos wallow in mud and then emerge to cool off by letting the
wet mud evaporate from their bodies (Figure B).
Comstock Images/Thinkstock; William and Marsha Levy/Science Source
We also lose heat through conduction of body heat to the surrounding air or to solid objects in the environment. For example, when you stand on a
cold sidewalk, you lose heat through the soles of your shoes, due to conduction. You might notice that, during the December holiday season,
volunteers for the Salvation Army stand out in the cold for long periods of time. Their secret? They stand on a piece of corrugated cardboard, which
acts as an insulator between their feet and the frozen sidewalk. The corrugated cardboard traps air between the sheets of cardboard and the cold
sidewalk. Air is a poor conductor of heat, which means that heat does not readily flow from the feet through the cardboard to the sidewalk. When you
sit in a chair, you lose heat to the chair through radiation. Feel the seat of the chair when you get up. You will notice that the seat is warm. That
warmth came from your bottom, which was in contact with the chair.
Vascular Control of Heat Loss
Blood vessels play an important role in the regulation of body temperature, particularly the superficial blood vessels that are found in the skin.
When the blood vessels in the skin dilate, blood flow to the surface of the body increases, and heat loss to the environment is increased. In contrast,
constriction of blood vessels in the skin reduces blood flow to the body’s surface and thus decreases heat loss through the skin. Therefore, when we
become cold or when we are exposed to a cold environment, our superficial blood vessels constrict, reducing heat loss. When we are overheated or
exposed to a hot environment, our superficial blood vessels dilate, which increases heat loss to the environment.
Insulation Responses
Recall that air is a poor conductor of heat. The insulation response takes advantage of this principle in order to reduce heat loss to the environment.
Birds and mammals have smooth muscles in their skin that encircle the roots of feathers (birds) or hairs (mammals). When these smooth muscles
contract, the feathers or hairs are pulled up to an erect position. This insulation response is called piloerection. When piloerection occurs, air is
trapped between the erect hairs or feathers. This layer of air insulates the body because air is a poor conductor of heat. Hence, the animal’s body
heat is not readily lost to the environment when piloerection occurs.
Piloerection is quite effective in preventing heat loss in hairy animals. For example, the arctic fox has such extremely thick fur insulation that shivering
is unnecessary until the temperature falls to –408C (Scholander, Hock, Walters, Johnson, & Irving, 1950). However, in relatively hairless animals like
humans, piloerection is not very effective. When we get cold, the insulation reflex is triggered in our skin, causing smooth muscles that surround hair
follicles to contract. You can see the contraction of these smooth muscles as your skin gets a bumpy appearance when they contract, resulting in
what is sometimes referred to as “goose bumps.” Because piloerection is not effective in humans, we make behavioral responses to compensate for
our lack of insulation, such as putting on more clothes.
The central nervous system of a homeotherm struggles to maintain a stable core body temperature. This is a difficult task because heat loss
continues constantly, and the body must produce enough heat, but not too much, to counterbalance the heat lost through evaporation and
conduction. Figure 9.3 summarizes the body’s response when it is exposed to a hot environment and a cold environment.
Figure 9.3: Balancing heat production and heat loss
Figure A: Exposure to a hot environment. When we are exposed to a hot environment or when we become
overheated, our bodies make a number of adjustments to prevent hyperthermia. The first response of the body
is to dilate superficial blood vessels. The second response of the body is to sweat, which increases heat loss
through evaporation. If you remain for an extended period of time in a hot environment, your hypothalamus
directs your pituitary gland to decrease basal metabolism by reducing the output of your thyroid gland.
Figure B: Exposure to a cold environment. When exposed to a cold environment, our bodies’ first response is
to increase the insulation response, or produce “goose bumps” by piloerection. The second response of the
body is to decrease blood flow to the skin by constricting superficial blood vessels. The next response is to
shiver, which typically produces a great deal of body heat. If you are a very young infant and are unable to
shiver, you would burn brown fat. Finally, if you are exposed to a cold environment for a long time, your
hypothalamus directs your pituitary gland to increase basal metabolism by increasing the release of thyroid
hormones.
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Brain Mechanisms Involved in Temperature Regulation
You’ve already learned about the brain mechanisms that control shivering and the release of thyroid hormones, which increase basal metabolic rate.
Both of these heat production processes are regulated by a region in the anterior hypothalamus called the preoptic area. In fact, heat production
and heat loss are both controlled by the preoptic area of the hypothalamus, as research with nonhuman animal subjects has demonstrated (Ishiwata
et al., 2001; Jha, Islam, & Mallick, 2001; Nakamura, 2011). For example, when the preoptic area of a rat is lesioned, the rat is unable to maintain a
normal core body temperature and will not shiver or show nonshivering thermogenesis when it is exposed to a cool environment (Satinoff, Valentino,
& Teitelbaum, 1976). Electrical stimulation of the preoptic area in rats produces both shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis (Thornhill &
Halvorson, 1994).
Neurons in the preoptic area appear to be thermosensitive, or sensitive to
temperature. Laudenslager (1976) applied heat and cold to neurons in the preoptic
area of rhesus monkeys. When Laudenslager cooled the neurons in the preoptic
area of monkeys, the monkeys pressed a lever continuously to turn on a sunlamp.
The monkeys pressed a lever to receive cool air when the preoptic neurons were
heated. Forster and Ferguson (1952) demonstrated that warming thermosensitive
neurons in the hypothalamus of cats produced panting in those animals. Similarly,
cooling the preoptic area produces shivering, and warming the same area
suppresses shivering in rats (Kanosue, Zhang, Yanase-Fujiwara, & Hosono, 1994;
Tang et al., 2012; Zhang, Yanase-Fujiwara, Hosono, & Kanosue, 1995).
Behavioral Regulation of Heat Production and Heat
Loss
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Photo 9.2 The preoptic area in the anterior hypothalamus controls
heat production and hear loss.
Ectotherms cannot shiver and thus cannot produce heat by shivering thermogenesis. However, this does not mean that ectotherms cannot regulate
body temperature. When ectotherms become cold, they seek shelter in a warm place or they huddle together. I remember, when I was a graduate
student at Columbia University and living in New Yo …
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