Expert answer:Managing IT Professionals in Dynamics Organization
Solved by verified expert:Unit 5 Discussion In your opinion, what is the most important social issue raised by the pervasiveness of IT? Why? How can society best deal with this issue?Requirements: 250 words 2 references and one can be the reading material.APA format
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CHAPTER
15
Social, Ethical, and
Legal Issues
W
I
L a core resource for organizations in today’s global
As we have seen, information technology (IT) is becoming
economy and is affecting, if not determining, what organizations
S produce and how they are managed. Anyone with
casual familiarity with today’s news knows that IT is influencing the whole of society, not just the business arena.
Today’s younger generation can hardly conceive of O
living without the smartphone, Facebook, Twitter,
communication satellites, and the Internet. IT is rapidly changing
N our lives, and this process of change is ongoing.
The information revolution is often compared with the industrial revolution in terms of the overall impact that the
,
industrial revolution had on civilization.
In spite of all the benefits that IT has brought, it has also given rise to a number of troubling social problems,
including loss of privacy, intellectual property issues, identity theft, spam, sexual exploitation of children,
J
obsolescence of workers’ skills, global outsourcing of jobs, and deterioration of working conditions. Some of the
computer crimes that create these social problems, such asAviruses and worms, were discussed in Chapter 14. In
this chapter, we will explore a number of social issues and consider their ethical and legal implications.
M
In the next section, we discuss the legal environment as it relates to IT. Then we explore some ways to analyze
social problems from an ethical perspective, after which weI consider the ethical and legal dimensions of a number
of social problems.
E
THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT
5
In dealing with the use of IT, individuals and organizations must work within a complex legal environment. This
0
legal environment is incomplete and sometimes less than satisfactory,
yet it is a manager’s duty to know and obey
the existing laws. Ignorance of the law is no excuse.
5
The purpose of law is to constrain behavior within a society so that its needs are satisfied and harm within it
1
is prevented. Thus, law is related to, but not necessarily identical to, ethics. Laws are rules that must be obeyed, but
it is difficult to write a rule that applies to every possible situation,
especially in the case of IT, which is changing
B
so rapidly. Also, laws must be enforceable—there must be meaningful sanctions that are invoked if the law is broU
ken. A law that cannot be enforced or that people will not obey simply engenders a lack of respect for all law.
The digital age has put great strain on the legal system. IT has made new forms of crime, such as identity
theft, feasible. And it has changed the mechanisms for reproducing printed material, photos, art, and music to the
point where what was once laborious and expensive has become a simple matter of downloading from the Web.
Technology has evolved quite rapidly, and the legal system has inevitably lagged behind.
The first reaction has been to try to reinterpret existing laws to apply to new conditions, which they often do
not quite fit. Then writing and adopting new laws takes time, and it is hard to write a law that exactly suits the problem, especially when the problems are always changing. It might take a number of iterations before a satisfactory
law emerges.
575
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576 Part IV • The Information Management System
Ideally, the law should reflect the best interests of society as a whole, but there is always controversy on what best
serves the public interest. Laws, then, are typically compromises between the views of various interest groups. Also, the
issues in regulating technology can be very complex, and
members of legislative bodies and government officials
might have little expertise in dealing with these issues.
Therefore, these decision makers may depend on the expertise and advice of lobbyists who can devote resources to
developing logical positions that reflect the interests of those
who are paying them.
Organizations are increasingly global, and the
Internet covers most of the world. Different countries have
different values and different legal systems. Whose laws
apply when a possible crime has been committed? There
are serious problems in determining who has jurisdiction
when the person who is injured is in one jurisdiction and the
perpetrator of the crime is in another. It might be virtually
impossible to enforce any law in a situation where essentially anonymous people in multiple countries are involved.
The impact of IT law on organizations has been discussed in Chapter 14. In this chapter, we will discuss the
impact of IT law on individuals and society.
ETHICS FRAMEWORKS
Why are we discussing ethics in a book on management of
IT? First, IT has a growing impact on our lives, and anything that has such powerful effects on people’s lives gives
rise to ethical issues. Second, managers determine how IT is
used, and therefore managers are responsible for the effects
of the use of IT and the ethical implications of these effects.
To act ethically requires that we take responsibility for
our actions. We need to clearly understand that the technology itself is not to blame for any harm that results from its
use. Too often we hear: “We can’t do that because our computer won’t allow it.” That might be true for the person who
is making the statement, but it does not absolve the organization from responsibility—someone designed the system and
programmed the computer to act in that way. And saying
“the computer won’t let me do that” is equivalent to saying
“our organizational policy won’t let me do that.” Likewise,
blaming the computer for a mistake is just an excuse—those
who decided to use the computer and designed and implemented a system without adequate controls are responsible
for any harm, not the computer! People and organizations are
responsible for the results, good or bad, of the use of IT.
Most of us consider ourselves ethical persons. Most
of us have an internal set of ethical standards, and we are
uncomfortable when we violate these standards.
Furthermore, in our careers as managers or professionals,
there are very practical reasons to act ethically according to
the society’s standards. As individuals, if we are perceived
as unethical we are in deep, deep trouble. If we get a reputation for being unethical, our jobs, or even our careers,
might come to an inglorious end. Likewise, if an organization is perceived as unethical, it might quickly be out of
business. Whether it belongs to an individual or an organization, a reputation for integrity is crucial to success.
Consider, for example, what happened to Enron and its
managers when its books were found to be dishonest. Thus,
managers must be concerned with both their individual
ethics and the ethics of their organization. Managers are
involved in determining the organization’s ethical standards
as
Wwell as in making sure that these standards are followed.
I
L
The
S first step in acting ethically is to recognize that a decision or action has ethical implications. In our use of IT we
O do harm because we simply did not realize that our
might
actions
might be harmful—we might not consider all the
N
implications of our actions. Therefore, we need to think
,
about
the ethical issues associated with our decisions
Identifying Ethical Problems
before we take action. One purpose of this chapter is to
sensitize you to the ethical issues that might arise in your use
J IT so that you will not neglect the ethical implications.
of
A How do we identify decisions where ethical problems
might arise? Because our ethical makeup lies deep within us,
M most common way we recognize ethical problems is by
the
feel—when
we don’t feel right about a situation, there might
I
be an ethical problem. When we suspect that there might be
E
ethical problems, a number of questions can be of help: Is
this fair to everyone that will be affected? Would I want my
mother to know about this? Would I care if everyone knew
5
about this? What would be the result if everyone did this?
0 Identifying ethical problems associated with the use
of
5 IT might be complicated by the fact that its effects can be
so pervasive. The effects of the use of IT might extend to
1 stakeholders—managers, workers, stockholders, cusmany
tomers,
suppliers, communities, and the general public—
B
and might affect them in ways that are not immediately
U
obvious.
For example, collecting information on customers
for use in serving their needs might be beneficial to both the
customer and the organization, but if this information is not
protected against intrusion, someone might break into the
system, steal personal information, and use it to harm the
individual. Furthermore, if personal information is sold to
outside parties, it might be used to harm the individual.
Therefore, when trying to determine if there are ethical
problems in the use of IT, a good place to start is to carefully consider all the potential stakeholders who might be
affected by the system and determine how each one could
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Chapter 15 • Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues 577
Principles, rather than blind reliance on
detailed regulations. These Principles should
influence software engineers to consider broadly
who is affected by their work; to examine if they
and their colleagues are treating other human
beings with due respect; to consider how the
public, if reasonably well informed, would view
their decisions; to analyze how the least
empowered will be affected by their decisions;
and to consider whether their acts would be
judged worthy of the ideal professional working
as a software engineer. In all these judgments
concern for the health, safety, and welfare of the
public is primary; that is, the public interest is
central to this Code
be affected. If one or more of the stakeholders might be
harmed, there is likely to be an ethical problem.
Analyzing Ethical Problems
There is no universally accepted way to determine whether
an action is ethically justified or unethical. There are examples where almost everyone would agree that an action,
such as murder, is unethical, but still there are those who
believe that they are acting ethically when they kill women
and children in an act of terrorism or in war. Even though
there are no universally accepted rules, many concepts are
helpful in analyzing ethical problems.
A number of professional organizations have recW
ognized that IT presents many ethical issues. The
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)I
(Gotterbarn, Don, Keith Miller, and Simon Rogerson,
and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
L
“Software engineering code of ethics is approved,”
have jointly developed a comprehensive code of ethics
Communications of the ACM 42 (October), © 1999
for the software engineering profession. The preamble toS
Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. Reprinted by perthis Code of Ethics and Professional Practice, developedO
mission. Web address doi.acm.org/10.1145/317665.317682).
by the IEEE-CS/ACM Joint Task Force on Software
The Association for Computing Machinery
Engineering Ethics and Professional Practices, containsN
(ACM)
code of ethics for its members explicitly recogthe following paragraph:
, nizes that managers and organizations have special
Ethical tensions can best be addressed by
responsibilities as expressed in Section 3 of this code
thoughtful consideration of fundamental
(see Figure 15.1).
3.
J
A
M
Section 3 of the ACM Code of Ethics
I
Organizational Leadership Imperatives. As an ACM member and an
E
organizational leader, I will …
3.1 Articulate social responsibilities of members of an organizational unit and
encourage full acceptance of those responsibilities.
5
3.2 Manage personnel and resources to design and build information systems
that enhance the quality of working0life.
5 authorized uses of an organization’s
3.3 Acknowledge and support proper and
computing and communication resources.
1
3.4 Ensure that users and those who will be affected by a system have their
B
needs clearly articulated during the assessment and design of
requirements; later the system mustU
be validated to meet requirements.
3.5 Articulate and support policies that protect the dignity of users and others
affected by a computing system.
3.6 Create opportunities for members of the organization to learn the principles and
limitations of computer systems.
FIGURE 15.1 Section 3 of the ACM Code of Ethics (Anderson, Ronald E., “ACM code of
ethics and professional conduct,” Communications of the ACM 35 (May), © 1992
Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Web address
doi.acm.org/10.1145/129875.129885)
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578 Part IV • The Information Management System
Quite a number of basic principles to guide ethical
behavior have been suggested over the years. Some of
these principles come from religious traditions, while others come from philosophers and others concerned with
ethics. The ancient Hippocratic Oath advises physicians to
“do no harm.” The Ten Commandments of the Hebrew
Scriptures forbid killing, adultery, stealing, bearing false
witness, and coveting. Most world religions advocate the
same ethic as Christianity’s Golden Rule: Treat others as
you would like them to treat you.
Some ethical issues are viewed differently
depending upon the culture in which they arise. For
example, in some Islamic cultures charging interest and
drinking alcohol are unethical while polygamy is
permissible. In some cultures, bribery is not considered
unethical; it is just the way you get things done. In cultures where there is respect for the law, breaking the law
is considered unethical. However, the reverse—if it is
not illegal, it is ethical—is usually not an accepted
interpretation.
In some cases, the situation is so complex that it is
not immediately obvious what action is ethical. When
there are several interests that are affected in different
ways by the decision, one needs to carefully consider the
impact on all those affected. Here all the parties who will
be affected by the action must be identified and the consequences for each party delineated. Then it is tempting to
argue that the action is ethically justified if the good outweighs the bad. However, when you harm some parties in
order to benefit others, it is usually questionable. Most
people would consider it unethical if, for example, all the
benefits go to the decision maker at the expense of others
who are harmed.
In these complex situations, we should remember
that there usually are a number of possible alternative
actions—not just “do it” or “not do it.” Especially in the
case of developing and using IT, we can often devise alternatives that obtain adequate benefits while minimizing the
harmful effects. And we need to be sure that we identify
and include all those who will be affected by the system,
not just those who will benefit from it. We might be
inclined to include ourselves, those we know, members of
our organization, members of our community, or members
of our segment of society, while excluding “outsiders”
from consideration. Ignoring affected parties is a common
flaw in ethical reasoning.
Despite occasional problems, ethical reasoning is
seldom difficult. If we recognize that there is an ethical
issue involved and take some time to think it through, we
usually have little difficulty knowing what is ethical and
what is unethical. Problems arise, however, when we face
decisions where being ethical has a cost. How we deal with
these situations is what distinguishes the ethical person or
organization from the unethical ones.
SOCIAL ISSUES
In addition to driving our economy and affecting how we
work and what jobs we do, IT affects how we relate to one
another, how we learn, and not only how we access information but also what information we obtain. Overall, IT
has been a very positive contributor to our welfare, but it
raises some troubling questions.
Today we are easily connected to one another
through electronic media such as cell phones, e-mail,
instant messaging, Twitter, and Facebook so that we can
W
stay in close contact with and share information with more
Iand more individuals than ever before. Does this lead to
L
more healthy and fulfilling relationships than we had
when
S most of our interaction was face-to-face, or does it
lead to more and more superficial ties? Or can we have
O
both more and better quality relationships through the
judicious
use of these technologies?
N
Children are spending more and more time alone
,watching television, playing video games, and sitting at
computer screens and less and less time in traditional play
activities with playmates. Play has an important role in
J
physical and emotional development, and over the past few
years, childhood obesity has become a national health
A
issue in the United States. Furthermore, all of this exposure
M
to intense stimuli seems to be resulting in decreased attenItion spans of our children in the school environment.
Recent studies have demonstrated that prolonged
E
exposure to the intense information overload resulting from
the constant use of electronic media can alter the development of the brain and even rewire adult brains. What will be
5
the impact, if any, on our society if these trends continue?
0 Not too long ago, the educational technology used by
most
5 teachers was limited to overhead projectors, slide projectors, and movie projectors that supplemented the black1
board that had been the mainstay for generations. Today the
digital
B revolution has provided a host of alternatives that are
changing the way education is delivered by educators and
U
pursued by students. Distance education opportunities
allow students to obtain advanced degrees from anywhere
in the world at one’s own pace and without even visiting the
degree-granting institution. There are obvious advantages
to many students, but it also raises the question: Is the
expense and inefficiency of the traditional residential university justified in today’s technological world?
Finally, it is clear that traditional print media such as
newspapers, magazines, and books are losing out to digital
media. Newspapers and magazines are going out of business
right and left, and the Kindle and iPad are putting pressure
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Chapter 15 • Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues 579
on book publishers. Traditional journalism, where reporters
are trained to verify facts and avoid bias, is giving way to
blogs and opinionated programs masquerading as news.
News programs that attempt to adhere to traditional journalistic values are losing viewers to overtly biased cable channels that appeal to specific population groups, and the most
popular hosts are those who shout the loudest and are the
most opinionated. If one believes that a successful democracy depends upon an electorate that is well informed about
the issues, what do these trends portend for our future?
It would require an entire book to do justice to the
social, legal, and ethical issues in IT, so we are limited in
the number of topics and the depth of coverage of these
topics. We have chosen to cover the following three issuesW
in some depth: privacy, identity theft, and intellectual propI
erty rights. Then we briefly introduce the topics of access
to the technology, freedom of speech, the hazards of inac-L
curacy, and the impact on workers.
S
Some social issues are important because managers
must be aware of them and make sure that these activitiesO
are not going on in the workplace. However, they are notN
central to the management of IT, so for space reasons they
are not included in this chapter. These omitted topics include,
h …
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