Expert answer:Discussion board question about communications iss
Solved by verified expert:There has been much written on the breakdowns of communications in disasters such as the recent tsunamis and earthquakes. Progress has been made since these events. Discuss five technological issues and behavioral issues that continue to impact communications in an event from the articles I attached below.important notes:1- use APA format for citation 2- At least four paragraphs. 3- please review the articles I attached below and additionally visit these two link https://www.dhs.gov/emergency-communications-guida… http://www.broadband.gov/plan/16-public-safety/
disaster_communications_part_1_global_mark_wood__g4hlz.pdf
voice_radio_communications_guide_for_the_fire_service.pdf
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DISASTER COMMUNICATIONS
PART 1 GLOBAL
First Edition, June 1996
Mark Wood, G4HLZ
Disaster Relief Communications Foundation
Table of Contents
1 Global
1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 What Is ‘Disaster Communications’
1.1.3 Differences to ‘Aid’
1.1.4 Emergency Services
1.2 What Do We Want?
1.2.1 For Phone
1.2.2 Against Phone
1.2.3 For Text
1.2.4 Against Text
1.2.5 For Fax
1.2.6 Against Fax
1.2.7 Semi-fax
1.2.8 ISDN
1.2.9 Internet Electronic Mail
1.2.10 World Wide Web (WWW)
1.3 Networks
1.3.1 Trafficking Messages
1.3.2 Keeping a Log
1.3.3 Echo Tests
1.3.4 Summary
2 Satellite Systems
2.1 The Inmarsat System
2.1.1 For Inmarsat-A
2.1.2 Against Inmarsat-A
2.1.3 Inmarsat-B
2.1.4 For Inmarsat-C
2.1.5 Against Inmarsat-C
2.1.6 For Inmarsat-M
2.1.7 Against Inmarsat-M
2.1.8 Data over Inmarsat
2.2 Fleet Management Systems
2.3 Regional Satellite Systems
2.4 The Leo Systems
2.5 Satellite Dispatcher Systems
3 HF Radio
3.1 Introduction
3.1.2 HF Radio Equipment
3.1.2.1 Modulation Modes
3.1.3 Antennas
3.1.3.1 ATUs
3.1.4 Dipoles
3.1.4.1 Widebanders
3.1.5 Verticals
3.1.6 Beams
3.1.7 Loops
3.1.8 Multi Antenna Systems
3.2 Marine Radio
3.2.2 How It Is Used
3.2.3 For Marine Radio
3.2.4 Against Marine Radio
3.2.5 For Autolink
3.2.6 Against Autolink
3.3 Gateway Services
3.3.1 For Gateway
3.3.2 Against Gateway
3.4 Amateur Radio Service
3.4.1 Resolution 640
3.4.2 For Amateur Radio
3.4.3 Against Amateur Radio
3.5 ‘Private’ HF Radio Networks
4 Power
4.1.1 Batteries
4.1.2 Vehicle Batteries
4.1.3 Dual Battery Schemes
4.1.4 Power Banks
4.1.5 Portable Battery Packs
4.1.6 Maintenance
4.2 Power Supply Systems
4.2.1 Battery Chargers
4.2.2 Trickle Charger
4.2.3 Float Charging
4.2.4 Power Supply Units
4.2.4.1 Caveat
4.3.1 Inverter
4.3.2 Uninterruptable Power Supplies
4.3.3 Voltage Regulators
4.4 Generator Sets
4.4.1 Rating
4.4.2 Redundancy Strategies
4.4.3 Observing the Load
4.4.4 Frequency Stability
4.4.5 Don’ts
4.4.6 Fuel
4.4.7 Diese l
4.4.8 Petrol
4.4.9 Cleanliness
4.10 Siting
4.5.1 Distribution
4.6 Other Auxiliaries
4.6.1 Transformers
4.7 Alternative Energy
4.7.1 Wind Turbines
4.7.2 Solar Panels
4.8 Summary
5 Legal Issues
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The ITU
5.3 WGET
5.4 UNDHA, DMT and UNDAC
5.5 Ngo’s
5.6 Tampere Declaration, 1991
5.7 ITU Buenos Aires 1994
5.8 ITU Plenipotentiary Conference,kyoto 1994
5.9 Itu Resolution 640
5.10 Reservations
5.11 Comments
5.12 Slow Track
5.13 Licences and Frequency Allocations
5.14 Licence Fee
5.15 Type Approval
5.16 Import Licences
5.17 TIR
5.18 Pro-forma Invoice
5.19 Draft of ‘Disaster Telecoms’convention
5.20 Summary and Remarks
6 Local
6.1 Introduction
6.2.1 For Field Telephones
6.2.2 Against Field Telephones
6.2.3 Private Wires
6.2.4 Pax and Pbx Systems
6.2.5 Cordless PBXs
6.3 ‘Walkie-talkies’
6.3.1 Procedures
6.3.2 Callsigns
6.3.3 What Is The Range of Them?
6.3.4 External Antennas
6.4 Mobile Stations
6.5 Power Output
6.6 Transportable Units
6.7 Base Stations
6.8 Automatic Repeaters
6.9 Channels
6.9.1 Trunked Repeater Systems
6.10 CB
6.11 Amateur Radio
6.12 HF Radio
6.13 Allocations
6.14 Antennas
6.14.1 Scanners
6.15 HF Amateur Radio
6.16 Data by Radio
6.16.1 The Problem
6.16.2 Packet Radio
6.16.3 Digipeating
6.16.4 Mailboxes
6.17 Satellite Packet Radio
6.18 Teleprinter over Radio (TOR)
6.18.1 Pactor
6.19 CTCSS
6.20 SELCALL
6.20.1 Pagers (Beepers)
6.21 Line Extenders
6.22 Mobile Phones
6.23 Emergency Mobile Phone Systems
6.24 Position Finding Systems
6.25 The Future
6.26 Training
7 Summary
7.1 System Integration
7.2 Turnkey Contracts
7.3 Maintenance
7.4 DRCF’s Role
_____________________
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The fact is, without communications, you don’t have an organisation, you have a disorganisation.
Everyone involved in disaster, aid and allied voluntary services is aware of the huge waste and nuisance caused by poor
communications in the field. Time is wasted driving around looking for staff and equipment. The rapid deployment of the
right equipment in the right place at the right time is impossible. Managers can have no idea what is happening once
people leave their sight. Without eyes, ears and a voice, they are just by-passed by the staff at the front end of the job. The
staff in the field know there is no back up, no help coming from outside, and would rather valiantly improvise than spend
days in a possibly fruitless search for help.
The ease of communication in a developed city is seductive, so much do we take it for granted that it becomes like the
wallpaper in the office (no cheating, do you remember the pattern?). It is a serious but common mistake to underestimate
the complexity and importance of communications, that is why The Disaster Relief Communications Foundation (DRCF)
continuously researches and reviews the whole matter, calling on expert opinion to keep their advice up to date.
Fig 1 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the largest single structure ever made by man.
Communications may seem like only a third world problem but, even urban areas will find their normal (Landline ) phones
via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN),1 Mobile Phones2 and Telex systems out of action in the case of most
types of disaster because the cables may be damaged or there may be no mains to power the telephone exchanges.3 A
perfectly working PSTN system is usually designed so that no more than 5% of the phones connected to it, can be talking
at the same time. During a crisis, there may to too much traffic for it to handle, and so it will become overloaded, so you
will keep getting unhappy sounding tones when you try to dial. It is not even safe to take ‘landline’ services for granted in
some locations of operation as they may be rather poor or even non-existent.
FIG 2 The PSTN actually depends on telephone exchanges and lines on the ground which are vulnerable in times of crisis.4
=REPORT=REPORT=
Cyclone “Hollanda”, Mauritius, February 1994. To prevent wind damage, the satellite dishes at the
earth station had to be parked in a horizontal position, they could not then point at the
satellite and thus all international communications to or from the island state was cut off.
Despite these precautions, it took three days to repair the damage, in the mean time, it would not
have been possible to summon help from outside. Technological and commercial pressures are causing
more centralisation of critical network elements, leading to their vulnerability in times of
crisis.
So we must take our own communications that don’t depend on any lines or power from the area. We also need something
that can be set up in a few hours, anywhere in the world, with no previous notice or time to plan elaborate engineering.
The solution must also be portable enough to be quickly moved into position by a small number of people, who will be too
busy to spend hours with complex technology.
Most important, it must be affordable to the organizations sponsoring the relief effort .
The subject of Local or Tactical communication, short range communications between the team members or a local cluster
of camps for example, is a separate one. This has been given consideration in part 2 ‘Disaster Communications- Local’
I will try to mention just about every practical system we at DRCF have ever heard of. Just because we mention (or don’t
mention) a system, this is not an endorsement of the idea. We merely acquaint you with the facts and leave you to
decide what you think is best for you. Reading this won’t make you an expert, but it will help you and your experts to
come to a better understanding
The Disaster Relief Communications Foundation (DRCF) is a Non Governmental Organisation (NGO), a small registered
charity, and we admit that our resources are limited. However we do try most conscientiously to make sure that what we
say is generally agreed to be true, or at least valid opinion, by experts in the relevant fields. However if you know of
something better that we do, we most sincerely welcome input, for future revisions of the book.
The powerful image of Captain Kirk nonchalantly pulling his communicator from his belt and effortlessly contacting
anyone anywhere is not just a dream. By the turn of the century, systems like IRIDIUM, GLOBALSTAR, ICO, Teledesic,
Ellipso, Odyssey,Constellation and many more, will bring just that and give hand held mobile phones that really work
anywhere in the world. Then, there may be less need for books like this as there may be one obvious way to communicate
with anyone anywhere, but as this service will not be available until 1998 at the earliest, and it’s effectiveness is as yet
unclear, we will consider those services available for our purposes at the time of writing.5
There are two methods.
SATELLITE SYSTEMS, (we will talk mostly about the INMARSAT system)
H.F. RADIO, (we will consider Private radio, Marine radio, Gateway and Amateur radio)
1.1.2 What Is ‘Disaster Communications’?
The needs of disaster communications and aid communications are in some respects similar, but the operational needs of
the two distinct types of organisation are quite different. This document is about disaster communications, but the
information is applicable to aid users also, provided the differences are understood.
It is the target of disaster communications units to be on the scene of the callout not later than 24 hrs after the first alert.
This sounds like plenty of time, until we remember that the personnel involved are Volunteers 6, who first need to be
contacted by various means, usually by phoning around by their group leader. Then their employer may need to be
contacted to get permission to be absent for the next two or three weeks and family business re-organised, grand parents
found to look after the children, clothing and equipment packed etc, all with the phone ringing like mad as the team is
assembled.
Author’s note:- These definitions for disaster, aid and Emergency communications are my own
invention, for use only in this document. Official definitions vary, but the UNDHA prefer the
term “communications in the Acute Phase of an emergency” where I mean disaster
communications. and “Long term Emergencies” where I use “aid”. Normally there is no
separate definition of “Emergency Services” made in legislation. By this I will mean state run
and funded organisations. The word “communications” can mean forms such as Broadcasting
and other media. For point-to-point communications, the term “Telecommunications” is
preferred.
Meanwhile, a deadline emerges, a transport plane must take off with the men 7 and supplies, and with only about four
hours to spare, the equipment must be found from its storage place and brought to the mustering point. There is no time to
test, no time to plan and certainly no time to train on complex technology.
This can be done only if the specialised teams have already got everything organised well in advance. The team members
must be sufficiently familiar with the equipment, that once in the field, they can repair anything not working, or more
usually, improvise things that somehow didn’t make the deadline. They won’t know how busy they will be, who and how
many teams of what nationality they will serve, or for how long.8 Networks will have to be created as they go.
A successful operation can only be achieved if the hardware taken to the field will certainly work without prior planning or
engineering and if the staff are professional and self reliant.9 Planning is impossible because the team would have no way
of knowing where they are going in advance, or what existing systems may be still working on the site, or if anything is
available at all, even electricity.
On the plus side, the operation can be expected to take about 1-4 weeks, so a temporary or makeshift installation is quite
satisfactory and elaborate permanent systems designed to be in place for months or years are not needed. Also, some
governments waive or shorten the licensing and Import duty requirements for the equipment, (if you remember to ask
nicely).
Finance is a tricky question, from where and when the expenses will be met is often unknown.
=REPORT=REPORT=
In one case, a small British NGO found their Inmarsat-A sat phone to be the only working
communications at the site of a disaster. This soon attracted attention from desperate officials
from other organisations to borrow it for ‘one quick call’. On return to Britain, the bill was
beyond their resources to pay, and it was very difficult to prove who should pay what, the result
being very unfavourable for the NGO. The resulting severe financial strain nearly destroyed the
whole organisation. Fortunately they survived wiser but much sorrier. If people borrow your
communications facilities then make sure you know who they are, how much they owe you and how and
when they will pay. This goes for your own people too, Satcomms is highly intoxicating, you must
tell your client when he has had enough and close the bar!-IRC
1.1.3 Differences to ‘Aid’ Communications
By contrast, aid organisations usually have weeks or months to plan their operations and have a good knowledge of where
they are going and what to expect when they get there. They even have staff in place to carry out the operations needed,
and also budgets in hand to finance expenses arising.
This means that proper planning and even surveying can be carried out before installation so that a well engineered
installation can be done. Networks can be devised, and the recent history of the operation will guide as to with whom and
how to communicate.
It makes no sense to have permanent Radio Officers 10 dedicated to communications in a refugee camp (unless traffic
levels are high), so after installation, training of the staff who will use the equipment and become Radio Operators 11 or
just casual users is most important.
The installations will be likely in place for some years, so a durably engineered solution is needed. Also the correct
permits and licences from the host government will be needed by such an installation.
1.1.4 Emergency Services communications
In this book, I will not mention ‘Emergency services’ communication much at all. By Emergency services I mean such as
the local Police, Ambulance Service, Fire Brigade, Civil Defence, Army etc. These organisations have their own existing
communications system and networks. It is most likely that they will be working in their usual territory, so their normal
VHF or HF radio system will be in range. These will however be supplemented by additional mobile control rooms,
reporting centres etc, but again they will be using their own equipment kept in reserve for emergencies. Statutory
emergency services will also have many full time technicians on call to set up and run their networks, so they are unlikely
to have very big communications problems.
Experiences show that statutory services are highly self contained. Sometimes however, this has the down side that they
may not be trained to see the need to help you by providing equipment or air time on their network. Also their networks
will be configured to funnel information to their own control centre rather than the PSTN, so even if they do let you use
their radios, you will only be able to send messages to their HQ. Maybe they will be happy to pass messages on for you
but maybe not. This will depend on the attitude of the government of the state you are operating in and if a UN OSOCC is
operating.
You may find it difficult to communicate with their networks and may find them hostile to anyone trying to do so as they
are trained to ignore any call sign that is not on their briefing list. The best policy is to depend on your own network and
let your organiser speak to theirs on a peer-to-peer basis to organise a means of communication with them.
A further problem may be language. If you are working with teams speaking another language than yours, protocol may
require that you work through an interpreter at high level in their organisation.
1.2 WHAT DO WE WANT?
Knowing the type and amount of messages you will want to send and to whom is the key to deciding which of the many
systems to use, so let’s briefly look at some of the factors in choosing the message types.
1.2.1 FOR PHONE
Most NGO workers I have asked (who were not communications experts) have expressed a preference for voice
communications and by that they mean phone calls via the PSTN. The phone has much to commend it. Giving two way,
‘live-as-it-happens’ conversation 12, means that problems can be discussed and many alternative ideas brain-stormed in one
conversation. It also has the advantage that the caller has the psychological reassurance that the person he13 wanted has
heard and understood the meaning of the message and besides, hearing the voice of a person you know is very warming.
Furthermore there are phones everywhere in the world and it is highly likely that the person you are calling has one at
home should he be there. It is also the best way of reassuring relatives at home that you are well and happy in your work,
and putting their anxieties to rest.
=REPORT=REPORT=
Do regularly call your sponsors and family. Just 3 Min. every week or two is enough to hear your
voice and won’t cost much.14 Don’t make a date or ‘sked’ you can’t keep, as not hearing from you
when expected will make your family literally sick with worry. If overdue, get a message via
someone somehow so that they don’t worry. If you are asked to pass on an ‘I’m OK mum’ message from
someone you meet, make sure that you do.
1.2.2 AGAINST PHONE
On average, phone calls are a very inefficient way of communicating specific technical information, facts, tables of
abstract figures and numbers etc. We must realize that a phone can ring just one other phone in the world. You the caller
must know the number to dial, taking the risk that there is a person to answer that phone and that the person you need is
near to the phone that you have just dialed. Sometimes the voice from the mobile station, whether by SSB radio or satellite
may sound very strange to the new listener. Things may be awkward if the called person is not used to the simplex
procedures or digitised voices with long echo and delay.
We are expecting the person at the other phone to drop what he is doing now and rush over to the phone, hopefully with
pen and notebook in hand, and be able to answer your questions ‘off the top of his head’. One problem is that the person
you are calling is sure to be very busy, but you have no way of knowing if your call is more urgent than what he is doing
right now. If he cannot answer questions now, we are relying on him to make notes detailed enough and accurate enough
to contain all the information he needs to find the answer, then rush back to the phone with the reply.
Time is very important here as a satellite phone call may cost up to USD 8.00 per min. you can see that only 5 min. of
wasted time costs USD 40! Even if the person is not there at the time and someone else takes notes for you to pass them
on, we are relying on someone being in the office at the time, and making notes in handwriting clear enough for someone
else to read, then finding the time to remember to pass the message on.
Another big problem is that of working across time zones. If you are wishing to call a person from their office number,
they may have a 24 Hr watch, or they may be available only during office hours in their country. It may be that you are
much too busy at this time, on the move and out of communication, or only have a small window of time to be available
for communication yourself. The solution is to call the person at home, but first you must have the number and the
person’s permission.
1.2.3 For Text
By a text message I mean a written message containing only letters of the alphabet and numbers. An example of a text
message is a telegram or a Telex but also includes Electronic Mailing. The advantages of communicating by text are many.
For example, the sender15 does not hav …
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