Expert answer:Collect four images and identify and analyze each
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FALLACY PARAGRAPHS
20 points each + quiz: 100 points total
Final draft due:
As we’ve been discussing, logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the
logic of all arguments. They occur in all aspects of life, including
advertising, writing, speech, and politics. Critical thinkers avoid
fallacious reasoning in their writing and arguments, and they can
also identify this faulty reasoning in others.
Your next assignment is to collect four images
(advertisements, product labels, social media posts, billboards,
memes, or any type of propaganda – positive or negative).
These items must be included as an image, next to a written
paragraph/analysis, so television ads and videos will only work if
you can “capture” one image to summarize the ad’s purpose and
tone.
One image must be related to a HEALTH PRODUCT and
ALL images must be CURRENT. Don’t, for example, do a google
search for “hasty generalizations” and print out an old
advertisement. I’m expecting your work to be reflect that you
are looking for fallacies that are currently present in your life.
You’ll be graded on how well you identify and analyze
each image (20 points per paragraph + a 20-point quiz on this
topic, which will be given when you turn in your final draft).
Some advertisements use a number of fallacies, and fallacies
often overlap; your job is to choose which fallacy best fits YOUR
image. You must choose four different fallacies, and only
include ONE “Appeal to_____.” Your paragraph should briefly
and specifically define the fallacy, analyze how it is used in the
image/ad/argument, and briefly discuss the fallacy’s concerns; finally, evaluate the persuasive
strengths (of lack thereof) of this image/fallacy.
Reminder: I’m expecting you to pull your fallacies from a few sources, showing that you
are able to identify them in all aspects of “real life”; examples include: social media posts,
billboards, product labels,
magazine ads, and more.
This ad, printed in The Los Angeles Times (Dec. 17, 2014), is an example of how propaganda can
be used for positive purposes. This ad attempts to convince people to quit smoking by using the logical
fallacy appeal to fear, which uses “fear” as the primary motivator. Advertisers use fear to startle and
persuade people to respond emotionally, hoping that anxiety will override rationale; all of this illustrates
the emotional power of Aristotle’s rhetorical device of pathos. The shadow of a gun is reflected beyond
the smoker’s fingers, suggesting that smoking a cigarette is just as deadly as playing Russian Roulette.
The statistic “106,000 people in the UK die each year from smoking” compliments the illustration,
providing further evidence of smoking’s danger. The grey background and shadowy picture all add to
this advertisement’s intrigue. Combining the provocative gun image, the ominous image, and the
startling statistic makes this an excellent example of how propaganda can be used for educational
purposes, reminding the public that smoking kills.
Oxi-Clean’s advertisement uses the false dichotomy fallacy, which concludes that only two
options exist. The color blue symbolizes cleanliness and water, which is appropriate because the two
options represented in this ad are Oxi-Clean and an “ordinary” detergent. False dichotomy – an attempt
at Aristotle’s logos appeal — is a manipulative fallacy because while marketers suggest only two options
exist, that simplistic thinking is rarely accurate: “a false dichotomy gives the impression that the two
opposite options are mutually exclusive, and that the “one thing” is true and right; but, of course, few
situations in life can be narrowed down to two stark and opposing options” (“Philosophy”). Indeed,
consumers will find dozens of available brands in the detergent aisle, but the false dichotomy suggests
that “ordinary detergent” is a combination of ALL “other” detergents which are not Oxi-Clean. While
this ad might be successful as a late-night infomercial, most consumers see past the limitations of false
dichotomy when advertising common items such as detergent.
Logical Fallacies & Critical Thinking:
“Logical Fallacies” are weaknesses in logic that are very common, and we see them every day in all areas of
marketing, politics, and even in general conversations with friends, family, coworkers. In academic writing, however,
Logical Fallacies illustrate a poor command of reasoning and a general lack of knowledge, so you want to become aware
of fallacious reasoning as you begin to form the body paragraphs for all persuasive conversations and writings. Having
some basic knowledge about logical fallacies will help you become a more thoughtful and persuasive writer & thinker.
Learning about fallacies will help you become a more effective student because they remind us to be Critical
Thinkers. We’ll look at examples in advertising, and I’ll also show you how these techniques show up in all areas of our
lives. It is not necessary for you to memorize the names of the fallacies, because they often overlap and knowing them by
name isn’t necessary at this point in your academic career. What IS most important, however, is that you begin to look
critically at your own arguments and identify those claims that are “weak,” ultimately revising them until then are
persuasive, strong, and compelling arguments. As you begin challenging your own thinking and use of fallacies in your
writing & thinking, keep in mind that the argument spectrum looks a bit like this:
Weak
Some faulty
Mostly Sound
Solid,
Argument
Logic
Arguments
Reasonable
A Short List of Common Logical Fallacies:
•
Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of
small steps, through B, C,…, X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don’t want Z to occur, A
must not be allowed to occur either.
If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment, eventually the government
will ban all cars; therefore, we should not ban Hummers.
•
Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing
to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. This is often used when advertisers use only a small sample
size.
Even though it’s only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.
•
Post hoc ergo propter hoc (“After this, therefore because of this”): This is a conclusion that assumes that if ‘A’
occurred after ‘B’ then ‘B’ must have caused ‘A.’
I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water made me sick.
•
Circular Argument/Reasoning: This restates the argument rather than actually proving or examining it.
Colin Powell is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.
I should be able to stay out after midnight because I want to.
•
False Dichotomy: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies an argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices.
(Remember that problems and solutions are rarely “right & wrong” with simple solutions.)
If we don’t stop using cars, we’re going to destroy the earth.
If my parents loved me, they’d let me stay out until midnight.
•
Ad hominem: This is an attack on the “supposed” character of a person rather than his or her opinions or
qualifications. It’s fine, for example, to consider a person’s character, but only when it’s relevant to the topic (job,
etc) at hand.
Green Peace’s strategies aren’t effective because they are all hippies.
George W. Bush used to be a drinker, so he should never have been president.
•
Appeal to _________: An emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion, democracy, love,
youth) or negative (such as terrorism, vanity, flattery) concepts rather than the real issue at hand.
If you were a true American, you would buy an American-Made car. (Appeal to
Patriotism)
You are so good at washing the dishes, so you should do them again tonight! (Appeal to Flattery)
If we elect ___________, our country will be ruined! (Appeal to Fear)
•
Band Wagon: The basic fallacy of democracy: that popular ideas are necessarily right. This fallacy uses
“popularity” as its basic appeal: lots of people are doing this (believing that, supporting him/her), so that idea
must be a good one.
All of my friends get to stay out late! Why can’t I?
•
Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments
rather than addressing them.
The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families?
I can’t believe I got a speeding ticket! The cops should be focused on finding murderers and burglars!
•
Two Wrongs Make a Right: When a person attempts to justify an action against another person because the
other person did or would take the same action against him or her.
I may leave my backpack on the kitchen floor, but my dad always leaves his shoes there, so why can’t I?
I didn’t feel bad about cheating on my taxes because the government “steals” money from us all the time!
•
Moral Equivalence: This fallacy compares minor misdeeds with major atrocities.
That parking attendant who gave me a ticket was a Hitler.
•
Weasel Words or Glittering Generality: The use of words so broadly defined – such as “love” or “freedom” or
“rights” or “patriotism” etc.. – as to become essentially meaningless. “Name Calling” also falls under this
fallacy.
Anyone who supports legal immigration is un-American!
Evian bottled water is as pure as a fresh mountain spring!
•
Non sequitar: statement (as a response) that does not follow logically from or is not related to a
previous statement or argument.
Regarding Hillary Clinton’s ability to serve as a strong and effective president: “Hillary Clinton’s
husband has affairs, and if she can’t keep her husband in line, she certainly can’t be trusted with the
country’s safety.”
(This example also represents the AD HOMINEM [“against the person”] fallacy. See above.)
The Ten Commandments of Rational Debate
By Christie Anderson (Patch Poster) – Updated Aug 6, 2013 3:48 pm ET
https://patch.com/washington/universityplace/the-ten-commandments-of-rational-debate
1. Thou shall not attack a person’s character but the argument itself. (“Ad hominem”)
2. Thou shall not misrepresent or exaggerate a person’s argument in order to make it easier to attack. (“Straw Man
Fallacy)
3. Thou shall not use small numbers to represent the whole. (“Hasty Generalization”)
4. Thou shall not argue thy position by assuming one of its premises is true. (“Begging the Question”)
5. Thou shall not claim that because something occurred before, it must be the cause. (“Post Hoc/False Claim”)
6. Thou shall not reduce the argument down to two possibilities. (“Fake Dichotomy”)
7. Thou shall not argue that because of our ignorance that the claim must be true or false. (“Ad Ignorantiam”)
8. Thou shall not lay the burden of proof onto him who is questioning the claim. (“Burden of Proof Reversal”)
9. Thou shall not assume “this” follows “that” when “it” has no logical connection. (“Non Sequitor”)
10. Thou shall not claim that because a premises is popular, therefore, it must be true. (“Bandwagon Fallacy”)
Common Logical Fallacies and How to Spot Them
Written by Karla Cook
@krla_cook
Originally published April 11 2017, updated October 19 2017
https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/common-logical-fallacies
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Logical fallacies — those logical gaps that invalidate arguments — aren’t always
easy to spot.
While some come in the form of loud, glaring inconsistencies, others can easily
fly under the radar, sneaking into everyday meetings and conversations
undetected.
Having an understanding of these basic logical fallacies can help you more confidently parse the arguments and claims
you participate in and witness on a daily basis — separating fact from sharply dressed fiction.
Our list is by no means an exhaustive guide to every formal and informal fallacy, but it should help you build better
arguments and identify logical missteps.
1) The Straw Man Fallacy
This fallacy occurs when your opponent over-simplifies or misrepresents your argument (i.e., setting up a “straw man”) to
make it easier to attack or refute. Instead of fully addressing your actual argument, speakers relying on this fallacy present
a superficially similar — but ultimately not equal — version of your real stance, helping them create the illusion of easily
defeating you.
Example: John: I think we should hire someone to redesign our website.
Lola: You’re saying we should throw our money away on external resources instead of building up our in-house design
team? That’s going to hurt our company in the long run.
2) The Bandwagon Fallacy
Just because a significant population of people believe a proposition is true, doesn’t automatically make it true. Popularity
alone is not enough to validate an argument, though it’s often used as a standalone justification of validity. Arguments in
this style don’t take into account whether or not the population validating the argument is actually qualified to do so, or if
contrary evidence exists.
While most of us expect to see bandwagon arguments in advertising (e.g., “three out of four people think X brand
toothpaste cleans teeth best”), this fallacy can easily sneak it’s way into everyday meetings and conversations.
Example: The majority of people believe advertisers should spend more money on billboards, so billboards are
objectively the best form of advertisement.
3) The Appeal to (False) Authority Fallacy
While appeals to authority are by no means always fallacious, they can quickly become dangerous when you rely too
heavily on the opinion of a single person — especially if that person is attempting to validate something outside of their
expertise.
Getting an authority figure to back your proposition can be a powerful addition to an existing argument, but it can’t be the
pillar your entire argument rests on. Just because someone in a position of power believes something to be true, doesn’t
make it true.
Example: Despite the fact that our Q4 numbers are much lower than usual, we should push forward using the same
strategy because our CEO Barbara says this is the best approach.
4) The False Dilemma Fallacy
This common fallacy misleads by presenting complex issues in terms of two inherently opposed sides. Instead of
acknowledging that most (if not all) issues can be thought of on a spectrum of possibilities and stances, the false dilemma
fallacy asserts that there are only two mutually exclusive outcomes.
This fallacy is particularly problematic because it can lend false credence to extreme stances, ignoring opportunities for
compromise or chances to re-frame the issue in a new way.
Example: We can either agree with Barbara’s plan, or just let the project fail. There is no other option.
5) The Hasty Generalization Fallacy
This fallacy occurs when someone draws expansive conclusions based on inadequate or insufficient evidence. In other
words, they jump to conclusions about the validity of a proposition with some — but not enough — evidence to back it up,
and overlook potential counterarguments.
Example: Two members of my team have become more engaged employees after taking public speaking classes. That
proves we should have mandatory public speaking classes for the whole company to improve employee engagement.
6) The Slothful Induction Fallacy
Slothful induction is the exact inverse of the hasty generalization fallacy above. This fallacy occurs when sufficient
logical evidence strongly indicates a particular conclusion is true, but someone fails to acknowledge it, instead attributing
the outcome to coincidence or something unrelated entirely.
Example: Even though every project Brad has managed in the last two years has run behind schedule, I still think we can
chalk it up to unfortunate circumstances, not his project management skills.
7) The Correlation/Causation or Non-Sequitar Fallacy
Just because two events first appear to be correlated, this doesn’t necessarily indicate that one of those events irrefutably
caused the other. This might seem like an obvious fallacy to spot, but it can be challenging to catch in practice -particularly when you really want to find a correlation between two points of data to prove your point.
Example: Our blog views were down in April. We also changed the color of our blog header in April. This means that
changing the color of the blog header led to less views in April.
8) The Anecdotal Evidence Fallacy
In place of logical evidence, this fallacy substitutes examples from someone’s personal experience. Arguments that rely
heavily on anecdotal evidence tend to overlook the fact that one (possibly isolated) example can’t stand alone as definitive
proof of a greater premise.
Example: One of our clients doubled their conversions after changing all their landing page text to bright red. Therefore,
changing all text to red is a proven way to double conversions.
9) The Texas Sharpshooter or Cherry-Picking Fallacy
This fallacy gets its colorful name from an anecdote about a Texan who fires his gun at a barn wall, and then proceeds to
paint a target around the closest cluster of bullet holes. He then points at the bullet-riddled target as evidence of his expert
marksmanship.
Speakers who rely on the Texas sharpshooter fallacy tend to cherry-pick data clusters based on a predetermined
conclusion. Instead of letting a full spectrum of evidence lead them to a logical conclusion, they find patterns and
correlations in support of their goals, and ignore evidence that contradicts them or suggests the clusters weren’t actually
statistically significant.
Example: Lisa sold her first startup to an influential tech company, so she must be a successful entrepreneur. (She ignores
the fact that four of her startups have failed since then.)
10) The Middle Ground Fallacy
This fallacy assumes that a compromise between two extreme conflicting points is always true. Arguments of this style
ignore the possibility that one or both of the extremes could be completely true or false — rendering any form of
compromise between the two invalid as well.
Example: Lola thinks the best way to improve conversions is to redesign the entire company website, but John is firmly
against making any changes to the website. Therefore, the best approach is to redesign some portions of the website.
11) The Burden of Proof Fallacy
If a person claims that X is true, it is their responsibility to provide evidence in support of that assertion. It is invalid to
claim that X is true until someone else can prove that X is not true. Similarly, it is also invalid to claim that X is true
because it’s impossible to prove that X is false.
In other words, just because there is no evidence presented against something, that doesn’t automatically make that thing
true.
Example: Barbara believes the marketing agency’s office is haunted, since no one has ever proven that it isn’t haunted.
12) The Personal Incredulity Fallacy
If you have difficulty understanding how or why something is true, that doesn’t automatically mean the thing in question
is false. A personal or collective lack of understanding isn’t enough to render a claim invalid.
Example: I don’t understand how redesigning our website resulted in more conversions, so there must have been another
factor at play.
14) The Tu quo que Fallacy
The tu quoque fallacy (Latin for “you also”) is an invalid attempt to discredit an opponent by answering criticism with
criticism — but never actually presenting a counterargument to the original disputed claim.
In the example below, Lola makes a claim. Instea …
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