Expert answer:Gender Discrimination

Expert answer:INSTRUCTIONS:Explain what the gender pay gap is and how it has changed over time.In the article, “The Gender Pay Gap: Challenging the Rationalizations,” Lips argues that the human capital model is insufficient for understanding the persistence of the gender pay gap. Similarly, the AAUW report we read, “The Simple Truth About the Gender Pay Gap,” notes that the pay gap cannot simply be explained by different career and life choices men and women make. Why are the human capital and “choices” argument insufficient? What other factors, such as gender-based discrimination, explain the persistence of the gender pay gap?Considering the consequences of the pay gap, for both women and men, why is it important to address this issue? Discuss the workplace policies you think would be most effective for reducing the pay gap between men and women.Special Instructions:Create a 1 page essay in APA format according to the instructions above. Use the 2 given sources for references. Additional references may be added if needed. Be sure to utilize in-text citations.Lips, H. M. (2013). The gender pay gap: Challenging the rationalizations. perceived equity, discrimination, and the limits of human capital models. Sex Roles, 68(3-4), 169-185. The 2nd source is located in the link below.
study_pool__the_simple_truth_about_the_gender_pay_gap__2015_edition__2017.pdf

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The
SIMPLE
TRUTH
ABOUT THE GENDER PAY GAP
FA L L 2 0 1 7 E D I T I O N
Published by AAUW
1310 L St. NW, Suite 1000
Washington, DC 20005
www.aauw.org
connect@aauw.org
202.785.7700
Copyright © 2017 AAUW
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First printing: 2011
037-18
Table of Contents
Foreword
2
Acknowledgments
3
Introduction
4
What Is the Pay Gap?
6
How Does the Pay Gap Affect
Women of Different Demographics?
10
What Causes the Pay Gap?
17
Recommendations
21
What Should I Do If I Experience
Sex Discrimination at Work?
28
Take Action with AAUW
29
Bibliography
30
Foreword
Research has been a key element of AAUW’s work for women’s pay equity since
the release of the 1896 report Compensation in Certain Occupations of Women Who
Have Received College or Other Special Training. Research empowers our members
and other advocates with the facts they need to express the problems associated
with the gender pay gap: It’s real, it’s persistent, and it’s causing economic hardships for women and their families. And, as demonstrated by the fact that we’ve
been working on this issue since 1896, the gap is closing too slowly.
That’s why AAUW is fighting on multiple fronts to shrink the gender pay gap.
Over the course of the last century, our organization has awarded millions of
dollars in fellowships to women pursuing graduate education. We have provided
research and pragmatic programs to advance women in fields like computing
and engineering. Our Start Smart and Work Smart salary negotiation workshops
are helping tens of thousands of women across the United States secure the pay
they deserve—and we are quickly expanding for even greater impact. AAUW
members and staff have stood in the room when federal equal pay legislation
was signed, from the Equal Pay Act in 1963 to the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay
Act in 2009, and we continue to advocate much-needed federal legislation that
would advance fair pay. We’ve also been proud to support and witness real progress at the state level as lawmakers devise creative, and in many cases bipartisan,
approaches to closing the gender pay gap.
Pay equity will continue to be an AAUW priority until the gap is fully eliminated regardless of industry or position. We hope this research motivates and
empowers you as you join us in this cause.
Julia T. Brown, Esq.
Board Chair
2
Kimberly Churches
Chief Executive Officer
Acknowledgments
The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap was written by former AAUW Vice President of Research Catherine Hill, Ph.D., in 2011. It was substantially revised by
Senior Researcher Kevin Miller, Ph.D., and former Research Associate Kathleen
Benson in 2016. Former Vice President of Government Relations Lisa Maatz
and State Policy Manager Kate Nielson, J.D., wrote the section on federal and
state policies. Senior Editor Kathryn Bibler and graphic designers Callie Strobel
and Morgan Wootten also contributed to the report.
AAUW thanks our members and supporters for their generous support in
making this publication and organization possible, especially the members of the
Mooneen Lecce Giving Circle.
3
Introduction
In 2016, women working full time in the United States typically were paid just
80 percent of what men were paid, a gap of 20 percent (Semega et al., 2017).
The gap has narrowed since 1960, due largely to women’s progress in education
and workforce participation and to men’s wages rising at a slower rate.
At the rate of change between 1960 and 2016 women are expected to reach pay
equity with men in 2059. But even that slow progress has stalled in recent years.
If change continues at the slower rate seen since 2001, women will not reach pay
equity with men until 2119 (figure 1).
The gender pay gap has lifelong financial effects. For one, it contributes directly
to women’s poverty. In 2016, 13 percent of American women ages 18–64 were
living below the federal poverty level, compared with 10 percent of men. For
ages 65 and older 11 percent of women and 8 percent of men were living in poverty (Semega et al., 2017). Eliminating the gender pay gap by increasing women’s levels of pay to those of men could cut the poverty rate for working women
in half (Hartmann et al., 2014).
FIGURE 1.
Women’s Median Annual Earnings as a Percentage of Men’s for Full-time,
Year-round Workers, 1960–2016 and Projections
100%
2001–16 trend
1960–2016 trend
projection of 1960–2016 trend
90%
ed
059
ject y: 2
pro equit
pay
projection of 2001–16 trend
80%
d
9
projecte
uity: 211
pay eq
70%
60%
4
30
20
25
20
15
20
20
10
20
5
Source: AAUW analysis of Semega et al., 2017 and previous publications
20
5
0
0
20
0
20
19
9
5
90
19
80
19
8
19
0
5
75
19
19
7
19
6
19
60
50%
Even after women leave the workforce the pay gap follows them. Because
women typically are paid less than men during working years, when women
retire they receive less income from Social Security, pensions, and other sources
than do retired men (Fischer & Hayes, 2013). Other benefits such as disability
and life insurance are also smaller for women, because these benefits usually are
based on earnings.
The impact of the pay gap has also deepened in recent years as a result of
changes in family structure. Between 1967 and 2012 the proportion of mothers
bringing home at least a quarter of the family’s earnings rose from less than a
third (28 percent) to nearly two-thirds (63 percent). Today, 42 percent of mothers
with children under the age of 18 are their families’ primary or sole breadwinners (Glynn, 2016). As families increasingly rely on women’s wages to make
ends meet, the gender pay gap directly affects men and children as well.
This guide provides key facts about the gender pay gap in the United States,
along with explanations and resources. Information is organized around five
common questions:
1. What is the pay gap?
2. How does the pay gap affect women of different demographics?
3. What causes the pay gap?
4. How can I make a difference?
5. What should I do if I experience sex discrimination at work?
5
What Is the Pay Gap?
The pay gap is the difference in men’s and women’s median earnings, usually
reported as either the earnings ratio between men and women or as an actual
pay gap, as defined below. The median value is the middle value, with equal
numbers of full-time workers earning more and earning less.
EARNINGS RATIO
PAY GAP
Women’s median earnings
Men’s median earnings
[Men’s median earnings – women’s median earnings]
Men’s median earnings
In 2016, median annual earnings in the United States for women and men working full time, year-round were $41,554 and $51,640, respectively (Semega et al.,
2017).
2016 EARNINGS RATIO
2016 PAY GAP
$41,554
$51,640
[$51,640 – $41,554]
$51,640
80.47
19.53
80%
20%
Earnings can also be reported on a weekly basis. The gender pay gap in weekly
earnings tends to be slightly smaller than the pay gap in terms of annual earnings. In 2016, the pay gap in median weekly earnings was 18 percent (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017d).
W HE R E DO T H E DATA CO ME FRO M?
Federal agencies such as the U.S. Census Bureau, the U.S. Department of Education, and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics conduct surveys of individuals,
households, and businesses to gather information about people’s salaries and
other earnings.
Most reports on national workforce participation, pay, and pay differences depend
on data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) (www.census.gov/cps), the
country’s primary source of labor force statistics. The CPS is a monthly survey with
a sample of 100,000 households sponsored jointly by the Census Bureau and the
Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016).
6
The estimate of the pay gap using weekly earnings is based on the annual average
of median weekly earnings for the previous year, usually released in January
of each year by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov/cps). The estimate
of the pay gap using annual earnings is based on the CPS Annual Social and
Economic Supplement, which is published each September by the Census Bureau
and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The CPS provides more detailed information on income compared with other government surveys. In recent years, this
information has been published in the report Income and Poverty in the United States
(Semega et al., 2017).
STAT E- L E V E L DATA
A pay gap can also be calculated for each state (figure 2). The American
Community Survey (ACS) (www.census.gov/acs) is a detailed annual survey
distributed to a broad sample of U.S. households and supplements the U.S.
census of all Americans, which only occurs once per decade. The ACS is often
used (including in this report) to estimate more detailed analyses of subpopulations and geographical areas, such as the pay gap at the state level and for
smaller racial/ethnic groups (e.g., Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander and
American Indian or Alaska Native workers) because it includes more households—approximately 3 million per year, compared with the 100,000 surveyed
in the CPS (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). The ACS results are released annually in
September, and briefs based on the survey can be found on the Census Bureau’s
website. According to ACS data, in 2016 the pay gap was smallest in New York,
where women were paid 89 percent of what men were paid, and largest in Louisiana, where women were paid 70 percent of what men were paid (figure 2).
7
FIGURE 2.
State Median Annual Earnings and Earning Ratio for Full-time, Year-round Workers,
by State and Gender, 2016
Men
Earnings Ratio
1
New York
$53,124
$47,358
89%
2
California
$51,417
$45,489
88%
3
Florida
$41,586
$36,112
87%
4
District of Columbia
$75,343
$64,908
86%
5
Vermont
$47,840
$41,122
86%
6
Colorado
$51,264
$43,206
84%
7
Alaska
$56,422
$47,518
84%
8
Maine
$47,890
$40,240
84%
9
Maryland
$61,321
$51,247
84%
10
Hawaii
$49,373
$41,224
83%
11
New Hampshire
$53,581
$44,550
83%
12
Minnesota
$53,200
$44,132
83%
13
Tennessee
$43,661
$35,916
82%
14
Massachusetts
$62,868
$51,666
82%
15
Delaware
$50,924
$41,771
82%
16
New Mexico
$42,297
$34,668
82%
17
Georgia
$46,712
$38,278
82%
18
North Carolina
$45,180
$36,987
82%
19
Arizona
$46,386
$37,966
82%
20
Rhode Island
$53,400
$43,541
82%
21
New Jersey
$62,311
$50,574
81%
22
Nevada
$45,326
$36,681
81%
United States
$51,640
$41,554
80%
23
Virginia
$55,817
$44,798
80%
24
Kentucky
$45,521
$36,259
80%
25
Connecticut
$64,220
$50,991
79%
26
Texas
$47,351
$37,576
79%
National average
8
Women
F I G U R E 2 . ( CO N T I N U E D )
State Median Annual Earnings and Earning Ratio for Full-time, Year-round Workers,
by State and Gender, 2016
Men
Women
Earnings Ratio
$50,676
$40,193
79%
27
Oregon
28
Illinois
$53,111
$42,108
79%
29
Pennsylvania
$51,780
$41,047
79%
30
Missouri
$46,543
$36,514
78%
31
Arkansas
$41,156
$32,242
78%
32
Michigan
$50,869
$39,825
78%
33
Wisconsin
$50,399
$39,440
78%
34
South Dakota
$45,384
$35,436
78%
35
South Carolina
$45,038
$35,043
78%
36
Nebraska
$47,352
$36,699
78%
37
Kansas
$47,891
$37,091
77%
38
Ohio
$50,227
$38,750
77%
39
Wyoming
$51,234
$39,338
77%
40
Washington
$58,864
$45,056
77%
41
Iowa
$49,385
$37,791
77%
42
Idaho
$45,305
$34,403
76%
43
Mississippi
$42,146
$31,757
75%
44
Alabama
$47,034
$35,012
74%
45
North Dakota
$51,789
$38,407
74%
46
Indiana
$49,157
$36,440
74%
47
Oklahoma
$46,027
$33,972
74%
48
Montana
$46,545
$34,028
73%
49
West Virginia
$46,029
$33,228
72%
50
Utah
$51,099
$36,022
70%
51
Louisiana
$50,031
$34,793
70%
Note: National data include workers ages 15 and older and are based on the Current Population Survey. Statelevel statistics include workers ages 16 and older and are based on the American Community Survey. See page
6 for more details on these data sources.
Source: Semega et al. (2017), U.S. Census Bureau (2017a)
9
How Does the Pay Gap Affect Women of Different
Demographics?
The pay gap affects women from all backgrounds, at all ages, and of all levels of
educational achievement, although earnings and the gap vary depending on a
woman’s individual situation.
R ACE /E T H N I C I T Y
Among full-time workers in 2016, Hispanic or Latina, American Indian or
Alaska Native (AIAN), black or African American, and Native Hawaiian or
other Pacific Islander (NHPI) women had lower median annual earnings compared with non-Hispanic white and Asian women. But black, Hispanic, AIAN,
and NHPI women experienced a smaller gender pay gap compared with men in
the same racial/ethnic group than did white and Asian women (figure 3).
Using a single benchmark provides a more informative picture. Because white
men are the largest demographic group in the labor force, they are often used for
FIGURE 3.
Median Annual Earnings, by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 2016
$80,000
$70,000
$63,239
$60,000
$56,386
$50,831
$50,000
$43,346
$40,000
$30,000
$20,000
$39,431
$35,069
$35,382
80%
77%
$30,482
$41,837
$37,128
$32,379
90%
87%
87%
$33,453
80%
$10,000
0
Hispanic
or Latina/o
Black
or African
American
Women
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2017a)
10
Men
White
(non-Hispanic)
Asian
American
Native Hawaiian
Indian or
or Other
Alaska Native Pacific Islander
XX% Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings
that purpose. Compared with salary information for white male workers, Asian
women’s salaries show the smallest gender pay gap, at 85 percent of white men’s
earnings. The gap was largest for Hispanic women, who were paid only 54 percent of what white men were paid in 2015 (figure 4). The smaller within-group
gender pay gap among black, Hispanic, AIAN, and NHPI women is due solely
to the fact that men in those groups were paid substantially less than non-Hispanic white men in 2016 (figure 3).
FIGURE 4.
Women’s Earnings as a Percentage of White Men’s Earnings, by Race/Ethnicity, 2016
Current
Population Survey
(CPS)
American
Community
Survey (ACS)
Hispanic or Latina
54%
54%
Black or African American
63%
63%
White (non-Hispanic)
79%
77%
Asian
87%
90%
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific
Islander
—
59%
American Indian or Alaska Native
—
57%
Note: Based on median annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers. CPS includes workers 15 and older;
ACS includes workers 16 and older. The CPS is the preferred data source for income estimates but lacks sufficient sample size for reporting on smaller demographic groups. See page 6 for a more detailed description of
the CPS and ACS.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2017a, 2017b)
AG E
Earnings for both female and male full-time workers tend to increase with age,
though earnings increase more slowly after age 45 and even decrease after age
55. The gender pay gap also grows with age, and differences among older workers are considerably larger than differences among younger workers.
In 2016, for full-time workers ages 20–24, women were paid 96 percent of what
men were paid on a weekly basis. As workers grow older and progress in their
careers, median earnings for women grow more slowly than median earnings
for men. From age 25 to age 54 women are typically paid 78–89 percent of what
men are paid, depending on age. By the time workers reach 55–64 years old,
women are paid only 74 percent of what men are paid (figure 5).
11
D ISA B I L I T Y
Disability status is a challenging population demographic to capture because it
covers many definitions. In the current ACS questionnaire disability is measured
by answering questions related to six disability types: hearing, vision, cognitive, ambulatory, self-care, and independent living (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014).
In 2016 people with disabilities made just 68 percent of what people without
disabilities made. And among people with disabilities, the gender pay gap is
substantial: Median pay for women with disabilities is 72 percent that of men
with disabilities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017a). (These data include all workers
regardless of full-time or year-round status.)
SE XUAL OR I E N TATIO N A N D G EN DER IDENTI TY
According to the Williams Institute, closing the gender pay gap would significantly mitigate the poverty rates of both same-sex and differing-sex couples.
FIGURE 5.
Median Weekly Earnings, by Age and Gender, 2016
$1,200
$1,007
$1,000
$794
$800
89%
$600
93%
$839
$1,102
$992
78%
$836
74%
$812
76%
$749
$705
$523
96%
$419
$400
83%
$1,075
$500
$388
$200
$0
16–19
years
20–24
years
Women
25–34
years
Men
35–44
years
45–54
years
55–64
years
65 years
and older
XX% Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings
Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 2016 annual averages
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017c)
12
Using 2012 ACS results an institute study found that eliminating the gender
pay gap would lower poverty rates for couples that include at least one woman
(Williams Institute, 2015). The Williams Institute also conducted a meta-analysis of studies of the incomes of lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals, finding
that gay and bisexual men are paid 10–32 percent less than similarly qualified
heterosexual men. The same study found that lesbians may be paid more than
heterosexual women but still are paid less than heterosexual or gay men (Williams Institute, 2007).
When we analyze the gender pay gap, it’s also important to include people who
do not identify with the gender they were assigned at birth. The Williams Institute estimates that 1.4 million adults in the United States identify as transgender
(2016). Transgender people frequently experience harassment and discrimination
in the workplace because of their gender identity (Grant et al., 2011).
Preliminary evidence from the National Transgender Discrimination Survey also
suggests that people who transition from male to female gender expression experience a drop in pay after the transition, while those who transition from female
to male gender expression see no difference in pay or even a small increase
(Grant et al., 2011). The experiences of transgender people offer a powerful tool
for understanding gender stereotypes and bias and how these factors play a role
in the gender pay gap.
E D UCAT I O N
As a rule, earnings increase as years of education increase for both men and
women. While more education is an effective tool for increasing earnings—
Asian women and men have the highest college attainment levels of any racial
or ethnic group (U.S. Department of Education, 2016a)—it is not an effective
tool against the gender pay gap. At every level of academic achievement, women’s median earnings are less than men’s median earnings (figure 6). In some
cases the gender pay gap is larger at higher levels of education.
Across all racial and ethnic groups, American women now earn more college
and postgraduate degrees than men (U.S. Department of Education, 2016b). But
education does not eliminate the gender pay gap. In Graduating to a Pay Gap: The
Earnings of Women and Men One Year after College Graduation, AAUW found that
just one year after college graduation women were paid 82 percent of what men
were paid (AAUW, 2012).
13
Furthermore, earnings are affected by race and ethnicity as well as gender. White
women are paid more than black and Hispanic women at all education levels
(figure 7).
Research suggests that differences in education and other measurable factors
explain part of the difference in earnings between racial and ethnic groups.
However, as is the case with gender, part of the racial/ethnic pay gap cannot be
explained by factors known to affect earnings and is likely due, at least in part, to
discrimination.
ST UD E N T DE B …
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